Chapter 2: The ResearchEnterprise in Psychology
2.1 Looking for laws: thescientific approach to behavior
*Describe the goals of thescientific enterprise, and clarify the relationships among theory, hypotheses,and research.
Goalsof the scientific enterprise could be generalized into three interrelatedaspects: measurement and description, understanding and prediction, andapplication and control. Measurement and description are the fundamental partthat enable psychological research, as both ensure the clearness andpreciseness of description of behavior. Understanding and prediction arehigh-level goal. Psychologists maintain that we understand something when weare able to explain why they exist. There is one way to evaluate understanding,which involves making and testing predictions. The predictions here are calledhypothesis by scientists, which refers to a tentative statement about therelationship between two or more variables. Application and control are themost difficult. Applying theory into everyday problems makes sure that thepractical value could be gathered and by doing this we are forming a strongunderstanding of that theory.
*Identify the steps in a scientificinvestigation, and list the advantages of the scientific approach.
Scientificinvestigations are systematic and they follow an orderly pattern.
Step1: formulate a testable hypothesis. Hypothesis is usually translated from atheory or an intuitive idea. To be testable, scientific hypotheses requirepreciseness and variables mentioned in a hypothesis must be clearly defined.
Step2: select the research method and design the study. There are various methodsto conduct a research, including experiments, case studies, surveys,naturalistic observation. These methods highly depend on the hypothesis, on thenature of the question.
Step3: collect the data. Data collection techniques, which are procedures formaking empirical observations and measurements, includes direct observation,questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, andexamination of archival records. Different investigations call for differenttechniques.
Step4: analyze the data and draw conclusions. Using data collecting technique theraw data of the study has been collected. Data analysis is commanded for aconclusion. Researchers use statistic to analyze and therefore statistic hasbeen an important tool for psychological studies.
Step5: report the findings. This final step of an investigation is to write up aconcise summary of the study and its finding. Reports are delivered atscientific meetings or published by journals which is a periodical usually in anarrowly defined area of inquiry to share technical and scholarly material. Thepublication goes far from than sharing. The research will be evaluated andcritique by other experts. Before the publication, articles will go through apeer review process, during which the article will be carefully evaluated frommethods, statistical analyses, conclusions to its contribution to knowledge andtheory. The peer review process is so demanding that nearly 90% articles arerejected. This process is a major strength as it ensures high-quality researchand reduce the likelihood of publishing erroneous findings.
Advantagesof the scientific approaches could be generated into two aspects. One is thatby scientific approach, the clarity and precision are guaranteed. Scientificstudies are much different from common sense notions which tend to be vague andambiguous. The other is its relative intolerance of error. This is whatscientists always pursue. They expect to get an objective and critical view ofthe study. When conflicts emerge, scientists come to figure out why and devoteto draw a clear conclusion about the conflict, which is beyond consideration ofcommon-sense analyses.
2.2Looking for causes: experimental research
*Describe the experimental methods,independent and dependent variables, and experimental and control groups.
Experimentis a research method in which investigator manipulates a variable undercarefully controlled conditions and obverses whether any changes occur in asecond variable as a result. Experiment is relatively powerful that could beused to test cause-and-effort relationships.
Anindependent variable is a condition or event that an experiment varies in orderto see its impact on another variable, which is designed and controlled byexperimenters. Independent variables are thought to have influence on dependentvariables in an experiment.
Adependent variable is the variable that is thought to be influenced bymanipulation of the independent variable.
Experimentalgroups consist of the subjects who receive treatment in regard to theindependent variables designed in an experiment.
Controlgroups refer to similar subjects with no treatment compared with experimentalgroups. Control groups are set to better show the influence of the treatment onexperimental groups and confirm that the impact is the result of the treatmentrather than other uncontrolled conditions. If the two groups are alike in allrespects except for the variation created by the manipulation of theindependent variable, any difference between the two groups on the dependentvariable must be due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
*Explain how experiments can vary
in design, and evaluate the major advantages and disadvantages of the
experimental method.
Ideally an experiment will show differenceonly on the dependent variables between the two groups. However, the reality isthat it is impossible to ensure that the two groups are exactly alike exceptfor the independent variables that is controlled by experimenters at thebeginning of experiments. Therefore, it is equally hard to draw conclusionswithout considering other potential variables that could influence the subjectsin the same way. Extraneous variables are any variables other than theindependent variable that seem to likely influence the dependence variable in aspecific study. A confounding of variables occurs when two variables are linkedin a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects. Randomassignment of subjects occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assignedto any group or condition in the study. How to choose the controlled group andhow to define independent for the experiment are also within consideration forexperimenters. All these can be various in designing an experiment.
Thefundamental advantage of experimental research is that it is powerful enough todraw cause-and-effort conclusion from the research because experimentalconditions are relatively controlled to isolate the relationship between theindependent variables and dependent variables.
However,these highly controlled condition at the same way leads to a disadvantage ofexperimental research. The problem is that experiments could be artificial, asresearchers could design a simple situation to test their hypothesis. Aconclusion drawn from a highly artificial experiment has little applicationalvalue outside the laboratory. Another disadvantage is that the experimentalmethod can’t be used to explore some research questions. The difficulties lieone in the ethnical concerns and one in practical realities.
2.3Looking for links: descriptive/correlational research
*Distinguish between positive andnegative correlations, and discuss correlation in relation to prediction andcausation.
Apositive correlation indicates that when the independent variable increases,the dependent variable also increases. A negative correlation indicates thatwhen the independent variable increases, the dependent variable decreases. Inother words, a positive correlation means that the two variables change covarywhile a negative correlation means that the two variables change in theopposite direction.
Thecorrelation coefficient is a numerical index of the degree of relationshipbetween two variables. The nearer the coefficient is to 1.00 or -1.00, thestronger relationship is between the two variables. If the relationship isrelatively strong, the correlation between the two variables could be used tomake predictions as the coefficient guarantees the accuracy.
However,a cause-and-effort conclusion is not possible from a correlation regardless ofhow strong the relationship is. Two reasons could explain this problem. One isthat even the two variables that are not causally related can be highlycorelated, the other is that we don’t know other variables that could havecause-and-effort relationship with either of the two variables we focus.Correlation is not equivalent to causation.
*Explain the role of naturalisticobservation, case studies, and surveys in psychological research.
Innaturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful observation ofbehavior without intervening directly with subjects. Naturalistic observationallows researchers to study behavior under conditions that are less artificialthan in experiments and it can be a good starting point when little is knownabout the behavior under study. Naturalistic observation can be used to studyanimal behavior. Apart from these advantages, one problem of naturalisticobservation is that it is not easy to observe subjects without being noticed sothat the behavior is not affected by researchers. Behavior of the subjects islikely to altered due to the presence of an observer. Another problem is thedifficulty to translate naturalistic observations into numerical data thatpermit precise statistical analyses.
Acase study is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject. Case studiesare particularly well suited for investigating certain phenomena, especiallythe roots of psychological disorders and the efficacy of selected therapeuticpractices and they can provide compelling, real-life illustrations that bolstera hypothesis or theory. The main problem is that case studies are highlysubjective. The subject could be subjective in describing his or her experienceand the investigator could be subjective in seeing what they expect to see.
Ina survey researcher use questionnaires or interviews to gather informationabout specific aspects of participants’ background, attitudes, beliefs, orbehavior. Surveys are often used to gather information on aspects of behaviorthat are difficult to observe directly and make it relatively easy to collectdata on attitudes and opinions from large samples of participants. The problemis that surveys depend on self-report data. Intentional deception, wishfulthinking, memory lapses, and poorly worded questions can influenceparticipants’ verbal reports about their behavior.
*Evaluate the major advantages anddisadvantages of descriptive/correlational research.
Correlationalresearch gives researchers a way to explore questions they could not examinewith experimental procedures and broaden the scope of phenomena thatpsychologists are able to study. However, it can not demonstrate conclusivelythat correlated variables are causally related.
2.4Looking for flaws: evaluating research
*Understanding the importance ofreplication and meta-analysis in research.
Replicationis the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.This process helps to identify inaccurate findings. Sometimes, however,replication also leads to contradictory results. Scientists then devote toreconcile or explain the conflicts.
Meta-analysiscombines the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yieldingan estimate of the size and consistency of a variable’s effects. Psychologistsuse this technique to make sense of consistent research.
*Recognize common flaws in thedesign and execution of research.
Samplebias is the result of the unrepresentative sample of the population from whichthe conclusion is drawn. Placebo effects occurs when participants expect toexperience some change during the experiment even though they receive nospecial treatment or control. Placebo effects can result in some psychologicaleffects due to the expectation of the participants. There are severalproblematic distortions in self-report data. One is the social desirabilitybias, which is a tendency that researcher draw conclusions with the expectationto meet with social tendency. Questionnaires is a useful way to collect databut there is possibility that the subjects misunderstand questions. Evenresearches show that the order of questions could lead to differentconclusions. Memory efforts can influence the accuracy of verbal reports aswell as personality, for example, some people tend to agree with nearly all ofthe statements, while some tend to disagree. Halo effect occurs when someone’soverall evaluation of a person, object, or institution spills over to influencemore specific ratings. Experimental bias occurs when a researcher’sexpectations or preferences about outcome of a study influence the resultsobtained. This phenomenon could be so subtle and psychologists sometimes avoidit by using double-blind procedure, which is a research strategy in whichneither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimentalor control groups.
2.5Looking at ethics: do the ends justify the means?
*Discuss the controversiesregarding deception in research and the uses of animals in research.
Deceptionis used by psychologists when they misinform or mislead subjects. Some areagainst the use of deception, saying that deception is just a lie, which is nodoubt immoral. And in the process psychologists somehow decrease participants trustsin others. It is also believed that with forewarning deception giveparticipants distress. Some defend the use of deception. In their opinion,deception is the premise of some investigation and it is like “white lies” thatare not really harmful to participants. Some participants reported that theyenjoy the experience of deception. And researches also show that it gives noharm to the participants’ trust in others. Advantages in knowledge are worththe costs of deception.
Inorder to know more about the behavior of a specific type of animal and to identifygeneral laws applied to both humans and animals, animals are used in laboratoryfor many psychological studies. Some psychologists exposed animals tounacceptable treatment. Therefore, argument in the uses of animals arose. Ithas been pointed out that animals have the equal right as humans. Somepsychologists assert that most animal studies are a waste of time. It showsthat only 7%-8% studies use animals and relatively few expose them to crucialtreatment. Finally, Bateson suggests three aspects to consider in the uses ofanimal: 1) the extent of anticipated animal suffering; 2) the important of theresearch problem; 3) the likelihood of beneficial discoveries.
2.6Reflecting on the chapter’s themes
*Identify the two unifying themeshighlighted in this chapter.
Oneis that psychology is empirical, and the other is that people experience theworld subjectively. The features of empirical approaches are the principles of psychologicalresearches. Psychologists conduct their researches by formulating clearhypothesis, using a variety of research method, being critical through theresearch process. Psychological study bases on the premise that psychology isempirical. The subjectivity of personal experience is one of the reasons forplacebo effects and experimenter bias. People experience what they want toexperience.
2.7Personal application: finding and reading journal articles
*Explain the nature of technicaljournals, and describe how to use PsycINFO to search the research literature.
Technicaljournals will not appear at local newsstand or even public libraries. Academiclibraries and professors account for the vast majority of subscriptions totechnical journals. In psychology, most articles are reports that describeoriginal empirical studies which permit researchers to communicate their findingsto the scientific community. Another kind of article is the review articlewhich summarizes and reconciles the findings of a large number of studies on aspecific question. Comments or critiques are also published.
PsycINFOis a computerized database of psychological studies, which is updatedconstantly. It is accessible online through most academic libraries or directlyvia the internet. This huge database contains brief summaries, or abstracts, ofjournal articles, books and chapters in edited books, reporting, reviewing, ortheorizing about psychological research. If you get the name of the researcher,you can find the article by searching that researcher. You can also searchcertain topics to find the relative articles.
*Describe the standard organizationof journal articles reporting on empirical research.
Ajournal article consists of several parts, including abstract, introduction,method, results, discussion, and references. Abstract is a concise summary atthe beginning of the article which allows readers to quickly decide whether thearticle is relevant. Introduction shows an overview of the problem studied inthe research which mentions relevant theories and reviews previous researches.Method introduces the research methods used in the study, including informationabout the subjects, the research procedures and the data collection techniques.It should be detailed enough that allow another researcher to replicate thestudy. Results show complex statistical analyses, figures, tables, and graphs.This section simply contains a concise summary of the raw data and thestatistical analyses. The discussion part includes conclusions drawn by theauthors and suggestions for further research. Implications and factualknowledge are discussed in this section. References are the list of studiesthat are relevant to the study and the firsthand source for the topic.
2.8Critical thinking application: the perils of anecdotal evidence: “I have afriend who…”
*Recognize anecdotal evidence, andunderstand why it is unreliable.
Anecdotalevidence consists of personal stories about specific incidents and experiences.It is so powerful that people are easily persuaded, mainly because anecdotesare often concrete, vivid, and memorable. However, the shortcomings ofanecdotal evidence are obvious. Anecdotal experience is similar to a singlecase study. Conclusions draw from a single case study can not be used in othercases as situations are different. To draw conclusions from case study, we needa systematic series of case studies. anecdotal evidence is similar toself-report data which has the impact of distortion. Researches take steps toreduce or assess the impact, but with anecdotal evidence there are nocomparable data. Memory of personal experiences are far less accurate andreliable than we imagine, which is also a reason why anecdotal evidence isoften inaccurate. Anecdotal evidence often consists of stories people heardabout others’ experience. Sample bias is also one of the shortcomings ofanecdotal evidence, as anecdotes rely on just on case and it is notrepresentative to all cases. In contrast, evidence-based decision making, whichmake decisions based on solid evidence, is a way of effective criticalthinking. It is likely that when people begin their talk with “I have a friendwho…” they are using anecdotal evidences.
In this chapter, scientific approach,experimental research, descriptive/correlational research, common flaws inresearch, ethical issues are introduced. This chapter is highly important asexperiments play an essential role in psychology. Psychological experiment orresearch relatively connects more in everyday life, for example, it is easy todo naturalistic observation. Therefore, the fundamental knowledge should bebear in mind as psychological phenomena is everywhere. Critical thinking skillsare not only the essential part of psychology, but also skills to ensure theinformation we get is relatively reliable. In conclusion, experimentalprinciples in psychological research not only benefit our study in psychology,but also in everyday life. Maybe this is the reason why more and more peopleare interested in psychology.
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