逻辑谬误
这一部分讲的是逻辑谬误的种类，也就是说推理不成功的类型都有哪些。其实前面介绍的也是跟这里有一样的，只不过名称不同，分类标准不一样而已。
把逻辑谬误分类其实是为了让我们更加方便识别错误的推理，更加快速的识别这样的谬误。但是其实不记住这些类型也完全没有关系，采用正选法，只要找出推理不合理的地方就可以了。
Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning. Logicians have identified dozens of specific fallacies. However, we will limit our consideration to the most common ones. Like the other problems encountered in critical thinking, these errors occur when we approach issues carelessly. (The distinction between logical fallacies and the problems discussed in Chapters 6 through 13 is not a rigid one. Some logicians would consider certain of those problems logical fallacies.)
逻辑谬误是推理中的错误。逻辑学家已经确定了几十个具体的谬误。但是，我们会将我们的考虑限制在最常见的考虑范围内。像批判性思维中遇到的其他问题一样，当我们不小心处理问题时会发生这些错误。（逻辑谬误与第六章至第十三章讨论的问题之间的区别并不严格，有些逻辑学家会考虑某些逻辑谬误的问题。）
ILLOGICAL CONCLUSION
不符合逻辑的推论
For an argument to be valid, the conclusion must follow logically from the premises(assertions). In fact, the conclusion must be inescapable. An illogical conclusion is one that does not follow at all or that does not necessarily follow. Here are some examples.
为了争论是有效的，结论必须从逻辑上来源于前提（断言）。事实上，结论必然是不可避免的。一个不合逻辑的结论是根本不遵循或不一定遵循逻辑的结论。这里有些例子。
CONCLUSION: I've got to get even with Mary because she offended me without cause.
结论： 我必须报复玛丽，因为她无缘无故地冒犯了我。
COMMENT: Illogical conclusion. You don't have to respond as Mary did. You could choose to overlook or forgive the offense.
不合逻辑的结论。你不必像玛丽那样回应。你可以选择忽视或以德报怨。
CONCLUSION: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns.
结论： 如果枪是非法的，只有不法分子才会有枪支。
COMMENT: Illogical conclusion. The police and the military would still have guns and, if the law so provided, so would any other people who met the new requirements for ownership.
评论： 不合逻辑的结论。警察和军方仍然会有枪支，如果法律规定如此，那么任何符合所有权新要求的其他人也是如此。
CONCLUSION: The Soviet government has never given their citizens any freedoms, so their recent moves toward democracy are clearly part of a plan to get us to let down our guard and become vulnerable to attack.
结论 ：苏联政府从未给予公民任何自由，所以他们最近走向民主的行动显然是让我们放松警惕，变得容易受到攻击的计划的一部分。
COMMENT: illogical conclusion. The conclusion reached here is one possible conclusion among several. But there is insufficient evidence to consider it probable, let alone certain. The Soviet government may instead be responding to internal social pressures or to harsh economic penalties of collectivism and repression.
评论： 不合逻辑的结论。这里得出的结论是几个可能的结论之一。但没有足够的证据来考虑这种可能性，更不用说确定了。相反，苏联政府可能会对内部社会压力做出反应，或者对集体主义和镇压进行严厉的经济处罚。
EITHER-OR THINKING
二选一（不是 就是 ）的想法
This fallacy consists of believing that the only views one can take of an issue are extreme views. According to this belief, for example, we must be either for abortion on demand or against abortion in all cases; in favor of retaining the welfare system in its present form or abolishing it altogether. Yet it is perfectly possible to endorse abortion in some cases but not in others and to oppose welfare abuses without denying the need for welfare. To deny ourselves the opportunity even to consider moderate views on issues is to condemn ourselves to unreasonableness on most issues. Extreme views are seldom reasonable views.
这种谬误包括认为人们对问题的唯一看法是极端的观点。根据这一信念，例如，我们在所有情况下要么按要求堕胎或反对堕胎;赞成保留目前的福利制度或完全废除福利制度。然而，在一些情况下，而不是在其他情况下，支持堕胎是完全可能的，并且在不否认福利需要的情况下反对福利滥用。否认自己有机会甚至考虑温和的意见就是要谴责我们在大多数问题上不合理。极端的看法很少有合理的意见。
This does not mean that we should be wishy-washy or compromise matters of principle. If the most sensible view of an issue is total affirmation or rejection, then that is the view we should take. But we should not allow the either-or fallacy to force us to that view.
这并不意味着我们应该软弱无聊或妥协的原则问题。如果一个问题的最明智的观点是完全肯定或拒绝，那么我们应该采取这种观点。但是，我们不应该二选一的逻辑谬误想法来迫使我们这样看待。
ATTACKING THE PERSON
人身攻击
There are times when the character of a person is the issue under discussion; for example, in cases where a member of Congress is being investigated for allegedly breaking or ethical violations. In such cases, it is appropriate to focus our argument on the person. However, in cases where the issue is an idea, it is inappropriate to focus on the person.
有时候一个人的性格是讨论中的问题; 例如，在国会议员因涉嫌违法或违反道德规范而被调查的情况下。在这种情况下，把我们的观点集中在这个人身上是恰当的。但是，在问题是一个想法或观点的情况下，关注该人的人身问题是不合适的。
Consider the issue of whether nuclear power plants are a danger to human beings and the environment. Among the supporters of those plants (as among the opponents) there are, presumably, informed people and uninformed, honest and dishonest, emotionally balanced and emotionally unbalanced. If we find a supporter who is uninformed, dishonest and emotionally unbalanced, what does that tell us about his side of the issue? Nothing at all. It might still be the most reasonable view. The only way to make a decision about an issue is to analyze the issue itself.
思考核电厂是否对人类和环境构成危险的问题。在这些工厂的支持者（作为对手之中）中，大概有人知情，有人不知情，诚实和不诚实，情绪平衡和情绪失衡。如果我们发现一个不知情的，不诚实的和情绪不平衡的支持者，那这些对我们了解他对该问题的观点有用么？ 一点都没有。 这可能仍然是最合理的看法。做出关于问题的决定的唯一方法是分析问题本身。
SHIFTING THE BURDEN OF PROOF
转移举证责任
Also known as argument from ignorance, this fallacy consists of demanding that others disprove our assertions. Whenever we make an assertion, it is our responsibility to support it, not other people's to refute it. (They may, of course, choose to refute it if they wish.) And the more our assertion departs from what knowledgeable people believe, the greater is our responsibility to support it.
也被称为忽略的推论，这种谬误包括要求其他人反驳我们的断言。每当我们断言时，我们有责任支持它，而不是其他人的反驳。（当然，如果他们愿意的话，他们可以选择反驳它）。而我们的断言与那些有见识的人相信的东西越离谱，我们就有责任支持它。
FALSE CAUSE
虚假原因 （因果谬误）
It is perfectly natural to wonder "Why did this happen?" in fact, one mark of a critical thinker is that she asks this question more frequently than others do. However, she realizes that mere closeness in time does not prove a cause and effect relationship. In other words, one event can follow another by coincidence and thus be entirely unrelated to it.
想知道“为什么会发生这种情况？”是很自然的事情。事实上，批判性思想家的一个标志是，她比其他人更频繁地提出这个问题。但是，她意识到仅仅靠近时间并不能证明是因果关系。换句话说，一个事件可以 巧合地 紧紧跟随另一个事件发生，因此完全与它无关。
The fallacy of false cause occurs when coincidence is ignored. It consists of thinking, "If B occurred after A, A must have caused B." This error is undoubtedly the basis of most superstitions. Misfortune befalls someone shortly after he walks under a ladder, or breaks a mirror, or has a black cat cross his path, and judges that even to be responsible for the misfortune.
错误原因的谬误发生在忽略巧合的发生。它包含了一个想法，“如果B发生在A之后，A必然已经引起B”。这个错误无疑是大多数迷信的基础。在梯子下面走，打破镜子，或者有一只黑猫穿过他的道路后不久，不幸就会降临在这个人身上，他甚至认为，即使是对这个不幸也要负责。
Sam is in the habit of arriving late to English class. Yesterday the professor told him that the next time he was tardy, he would be refused admission. Today Sam got a composition back with a grade of D. He reasons the professor gave him a low grade out of anger over Sam's lateness. Sam has committed the fallacy of false cause. Maybe the professor did lower the grade for that reason, maybe not. Without additional evidence, Sam should withhold judgment.
萨姆习惯迟到英语课。昨天教授告诉他，下次他迟到时，他会被拒绝入场。今天萨姆得到了一个D的分数。他的理由是教授对萨姆的迟到感到愤怒。萨姆犯了错误原因的谬误。也许教授确实因为这个原因降低了成绩，也可能不是。没有额外的证据，萨姆应该拒绝判断。
STRAW MAN
偷换概念
As the term implies, straw man is an argument without substance. This fallacy consists of pretending one's adversary has said something false and then proceeding to demonstrate that it is false. Suppose you are debating whether legislation should be enacted restricting the sale of assault weapons. You state that you support such legislation because assault weapons are designed, not for hunting or even for self-defense but for killing people, often indiscriminately. Your opponent responds, "So you believe you should decide what weapons are acceptable and what weapons aren't. It's exactly this kind of arrogance by self-appointed social reformers that everyone who lives the constitutions should fear."
正如这个术语所暗示的那样，偷换概念是没有实质意义的论点。这种谬误包括假装自己的对手说了些虚假的事，然后继续证明它是错误的。假设您正在讨论是否应该制定限制出售攻击性武器的立法。你声明你支持这样的立法，因为突击武器的设计不是为了狩猎，也不是为了自卫，而是为了杀人，通常是不分青红皂白的杀人。你的对手回答说：“所以你认为你应该决定哪些武器可以接受，什么武器不可以被接受，正是这种自命不凡的社会改革者的这种傲慢态度，所有生活在宪法中的人都应该害怕。”
Your opponent has committed the straw man fallacy. Perhaps she did so consciously to put you on the defensive. (The best response is to point out what she has done:"First you put irresponsible words in my mouth and then you say I'm irresponsible. I'd prefer to hear your reaction to what I really said."
你的对手犯了偷换概念的谬误。也许她有意识地让你处于防守状态。（最好的回答是指出她所做的一切：“首先你把不负责任的话语放在我的嘴里，然后你说我是不负责任的。我更想听听你对我说的话的反应。”
IRRATIONAL APPEALS
非理性的上诉
Irrational appeals urge us to accept ideas at face value or on some other basis than reasonableness. They are considered logical fallacies because they say, in effect, "You don't have to think about this matter – there is no danger of error here." And that is itself, a serious error. The danger of error always exists, and thinking critically is the best way to minimize that danger.
结论无据非理性的上诉因为他们实际上说：“你不必考虑这个问题 - 这里肯定没有错误的危险。” 而这本身就是一个严重的错误。错误的危险总是存在，批判性思考是最大限度地减少这种危险的最佳方式。
Irrational appeals usually take one of the following forms:
非理性的上诉通常采取以下形式之一：
Appeal to emotion. this appeal urges the uncritical acceptance of strong feelings; for example, love of family or country, fear, resentment, guilt.
呼吁情感 。这一呼吁敦促不加批判地接受强烈的感情; 例如，对家庭或国家的爱，恐惧，怨恨，内疚。【打感情牌】
Appeal to Tradition or Faith.This appeal urges maintaining past customs or beliefs not because they are applicable to the present situation, but merely because they have always been maintained.
呼吁传统或信仰。 这一呼吁敦促维护过去的习俗或信仰，并非因为它们适用于目前的情况，而仅仅是因为它们一直得到维护。【说民俗】
Appeal to Moderation. An appeal to moderation urges a moderate view not because it is the most reasonable view, but merely because it is inoffensive to anyone.
呼吁适度 。对温和的呼吁促使温和的观点不是因为它是最合理的观点，而仅仅是因为它对任何人都是无害的。【寻求和解调解】
Appeal to Authority. This appeal urges the unquestioning acceptance of an authority's view. The authority may be a person, a book or document, or an agency (such as the Supreme Court).
呼吁管理局。 这一呼吁敦促毫无疑问地会导致接受一个当局的观点。当局可能是一个人，一本书或文件，或一个机构（如最高法院）。【寻求专家意见】
Appeal to Common Sense. This appeal is often accompanied by such phrases as "everyone knows that" "no reasonable person would deny that," and "its common sense." (Many ideas that were at one time accepted as common sense– such as sacrificing young virgins to ensure a good harvest and abandoning deformed babies to die – are now recognized as uncommon nonsense or worse.)
呼吁常识 。这种诉求通常伴随着“每个人都知道”，“没有合理的人会否认这一点”，“这是常识”等短语。（许多曾经被认为是常识的想法 - 比如牺牲年轻的处女以确保丰收和放弃畸形的婴儿让其死亡 - 现在被认为是不是常识或更糟的。）
Appeals to emotion, tradition, faith, moderation, authority, or common sense are not necessarily irrational. In many cases they are rational – that is, they invite, rather than discourage, critical thinking. Be sure to distinguish between rational and irrational appeals whenever you evaluate issues.
对情感，传统，信仰，节制，权威或常识的诉求并不一定非理性。在很多情况下，他们都是理性的 - 也就是说，他们邀请而不是阻止批判性思维。无论何时评估问题，都一定要区分理性和非理性的诉求。
IDENTIFYING LOGICAL FALLACIES
识别逻辑谬误
Its tempting to think that if we find errors, we automatically disprove the conclusion. That's not so. The conclusion may be reasonable in spite of the errors. Whenever you examine an issue remember that, as important as it is to recognize and avoid errors, your main objective is to find the most reasonable, supportable view.
很容易想到，如果我们发现错误，我们会自动反驳结论。事实并非如此。尽管有错误，结论可能是合理的。每当你检查一个问题时，要记住，识别和避免错误同样重要，你的主要目标是找到最合理，可支持的观点。
APPLICATIONS
应用
Examine each of the following arguments carefully. If you are uninformed about the issue it addresses, do some research. Then decide which view of the issue is most reasonable. Be alert for logical fallacies in the arguments themselves and avoid committing fallacies in your reasoning.
仔细检查以下每个争论。如果你对它所解决的问题不了解，请做一些研究。然后决定哪个观点是最合理的。警惕论证本身的逻辑谬误，避免在推理中犯谬论。
I never vote in national elections. I figure that my vote will be canceled by someone else's. Besides, all politicians are going to rob the public so it doesn't matter who get selected.
我从未在全国大选中投票。我认为我的投票将被其他人取消。此外，所有的政客都会贿选公众，所以谁当选都无关紧要。
Dog fighting is a sport in which two specially trained dogs (often, but not always, pit bull terriers) do combat until one is killed or badly maimed. It is illegal in most states. But should it be? I say no. if I own a dog, it's my property and I should be able to do whatever I wish with it.
斗狗是一种运动，两名受过专门训练的狗（通常但不总是斗牛犬）会一直战斗直至死亡或致残。这在大多数州都是非法的。但是，它是非法的么？我说不是。如果我拥有一只狗，这是我的财产，我应该可以随心所欲地做任何事情。
Affirmative action originated as system to overcome the effects of years of prejudice against minorities. But it has created discrimination against the majority. I favor eliminating affirmative action requirements and returning to the old system. For all its imperfections, it's far better than what we have now.
平权行动起源于一种多年来克服对少数群体的偏见影响的制度。但它造成了对大多数人的歧视。我赞成消除平权行动要求并回到旧系统。尽管它的所有不完善之处都远远优于现在的状况。
Whenever Americans buy automobiles, clothing, and electronic equipment from other countries, they undermine American business and hurt American workers. Patriotism demands that we refrain from buying from foreign competitors even when their prices are lower and their quality is higher.
每当美国人购买来自其他国家的汽车，服装和电子设备时，他们就会破坏美国企业并伤害美国工人。爱国主义要求我们不要从外国竞争对手那里购买，即使它们的价格较低，质量较高。
It's absurd to believe in life after death because no one has ever returned from the grave.
相信死后的生活是荒谬的，因为没有人从坟墓中回来。
Women in the military should be required to undergo the same physical training men do. They should also not be exempted from frontline duty.
应该要求军人中的女性接受与男性同样的体能训练。他们也不应免于前线工作。
In 1982, New York State SocialServices officials directed local adoption agencies not to reject applicants solely because they are homosexual or have a history of alcoholism or drug abuse, a criminal record, a dependency on welfare, or a severe emotional or physical handicap.
1982年，纽约州社会服务部门的官员指示地方收养机构不要仅因为他们是同性恋或有酗酒或吸毒史，犯罪记录，对福利的依赖或严重的情绪或身体障碍而拒绝申请人。
Every knowledgeable person agrees that the nation's court system is seriously bogged down with cases and that something must be done to alleviate that condition. The best way to do so, I am convinced, is to dispense with the outdated concept of "innocent until proven guilty" and make all those charged with a crime prove their innocence.
每个知识渊博的人都同意，国家的法院系统严重陷于积案中，必须采取一些措施来缓解这种状况。我相信，这样做的最好办法是免除“无罪推定”的过时概念，并让所有被控犯有罪的人证明自己是清白的。
It's ironic that during the very time when Pete Rose was being castigated for his alleged gambling on sports events (late spring, 1989), newspapers were filled with stories about Illinois and Pennsylvania lotteries and their respective $62.5 and $115 million jackpots. Millions of people were placing bets on those lotteries and dozens of other state lotteries, and that was regarded as perfectly legitimate. And yet a great baseball star was being threatened with disgrace and expulsion from the game he loved. The whole fiasco can be explained only in terms of monumental ignorance or hypocrisy.
具有讽刺意味的是，在皮特罗斯因涉嫌体育赛事而赌博的时刻（1989年春末），报纸上充斥着有关伊利诺伊州和宾夕法尼亚州彩票以及他们各自的62.5美元和1.15亿美元彩票头奖的故事。数百万人正在对这些彩票进行押注，还有数十个其他州彩票，这被认为是完全合法的。然而，一位伟大的棒球明星正在受到他所爱的游戏的耻辱和驱逐的威胁。整个惨败只能用巨大的无知或虚伪来解释。
For the last few decades, most Americans have swallowed the liberal line that everyone deserves a college education. As a result, college courses have been watered down and the college degree has been rendered meaningless. It's high time we adopt a more realistic view. College should be reserved for those who have not only taken a demanding high school program but have excelled in it.
在过去的几十年里，大多数美国人都吞下了自由派，每个人都应该接受大学教育。结果，大学课程已被淡化，大学学位已变得毫无意义。现在是我们采取更现实的观点的时候了。学院应该保留给那些不仅要求高中要求而且要求优秀的学生。
Group discussion exercise: Select one of the cases you analyzed inapplication 1 and discuss it with two or three of your classmates. Try to reach a consensus, but be careful to avoid committing logical fallacies. Be prepared to present your idea(s) to the class.
小组讨论练习：选择您在应用1中分析的一个案例，并与两个或三个同学讨论。尽量达成共识，但要小心避免犯逻辑谬误。准备好向班级介绍你的想法。
这个系列是对超越感觉：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻译练习，如果觉得有帮助可以点链接购买第九版中文，英文原版在这里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英语）
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