过分简化
这一部分讲的是过度简化
人们在这个世界上积累了太多的知识和经验，然而在一代一代往下传的过程中，就出现了像一个传话游戏一样的结果。
可能从开始第一个人那边还是完整的意思，经过几代人的传递之后就变得只剩下骨架了。
这样的原因有很多。
一是传递者自己并不完全了解复杂的内容就传到了下一个。
二是传递者的上一个就没有传递给他完整的信息。
三是传递者犯了“我的就是好的”这样的错误观念
四是传递者考虑问题片面化
避免过度简化的方法很简单
就是凡事多个角度去考虑问题，考虑全面
题外话，看到这一部分的时候，突然想到我前一段时间想明白逻辑是怎么回事的时候，其实我卡的点就是因为传递信息的过度简化问题。
我接收到的所有信息都是如果前提为真那么结论为真，反过来结论不为真，则前提也不为真。
其实这里面的前提和结论各自出现了两次，但是这两次可以理解为完全不同的对象和内容，所以传递者为了追求好记忆，对仗，所以简化了前面的修饰词，从而导致我的思路一直卡顿，还好现在明白了。
真正能把所学的内容跟别人说明白，是把所有的情况都能考虑到说清楚，从根源来解释清楚，每一个词都精确的定义，这样才是真的懂了。
再复习一次充分条件关系和必要条件关系的知识：
A是B的充分条件的话A和CD都是并联关系。A C D任何一个存在 （为真）B都成立（为真）
如果是A是B必要条件那A和CD就是串联，就是A存在（为真） 还有CD也要存在（为真）B才会成立（为真）
所以充分条件是个人英雄主义。有我一定成立，不成立那也一定没有我了
必要条件是集体主义。单单只有我一般不行，还有其他兄弟帮忙。但一旦结论成立了，团队包括我也在。
我的思考反馈：
第一个并联的充分条件 其实三个都是充分条件 由此推出 的 所以充分条件是个人英雄主义。有我一定成立，不成立那也一定没有我了 不仅没有A 也没有C D
我之前的理解障碍就在于大家说这个概念公式的时候把A C D 都说成了A
还有关系和前提 结论本身是两码事
所以，自己理解的角度，和教授给别人的角度是往往不同的，每个人理解问题卡住的地方不一样，老师们不可能精确的知道你卡在哪里，只能凭自己和以往的经验，以大部分人卡顿的点进行解释，所以学习要找到适合自己的，听取老师们的解释后要多思考，是慢思考。把老师简化的那部分内容补充完整就能拼出完整的图了。
一下午的时间把所有LSAT单词刷了一遍，虽然记忆留下很少，起码我知道考的原来这么多我不认识的词呢，不过没关系，多刷几遍吧
Simplification is a useful, even necessary activity. The world is complex. There are thousands of subjects and millions of facts and interpretations of facts. No one can hope to be an expert in more than one or two subjects. Furthermore, as we have seen in previous chapters, even an expert's knowledge and understanding are limited.
简化是一项有用的甚至是必要的活动。世界很复杂。有数千个主题和数百万事实和事实解释。没有人能够成为超过一个或两个主题的专家。此外，正如我们在前几章中看到的，即使专家的知识和理解也是有限的。
Yet the job of communicating about these subjects is an everyday necessity. Circumstance forces those who know more about a subject to speak with those who know less. In industry, for example, supervisors must train new workers. In government, experienced employees must explain procedures to novices. In each of these cases ， the effectiveness of the training depends on the clarity of the instruction. Complicated matters can be made clear only by simplifying them.
然而，沟通这些问题的工作是日常的必需品。环境迫使那些更了解某个主题的人与那些不了解的人交谈。例如，在工业领域，主管必须培训新员工。在政府部门，有经验的员工必须向新手解释程序。在每种情况下，培训的有效性都取决于指导的明确性。复杂的事情只能通过简化来明确清晰。
Nowhere is the value of simplification clearer than in formal education. First-grade teachers can not expect their pupils to grasp the lessons in science and math and English as the teachers learned them. They must phrase the lessons in a simpler way, a way suited to the pupils' level of understanding.
简化的价值远不及正规教育。一年级的教师不能期望他们的学生能够像老师们所了解的那样，掌握科学，数学和英语的课程。他们必须以一种更简单的方式来讲述这些课程，这种方式适合学生的理解水平。
Similarly, if those first-grade teachers take graduate courses, their professors probably don't speak to them in quite the same way that they do with colleagues or in articles for professional journals. The professors simplify. (It may well be that people who attain such levels of intellectual penetration as Albert Einstein must simplify when they talk about their fields to anyone.)
同样，如果这些一年级教师接受研究生课程，他们的教授可能不会像他们对同事或专业期刊文章那样讲话。教授会简化。（很可能是那些达到爱因斯坦这种知识渗透水平的人在向任何人 谈论他们的领域时都必须简化。）
OVER SIMPLIFICATION DISTORTS
过度简化的扭曲
Although there is nothing wrong with simplification, oversimplification(excessive simplification) is an obstacle to critical thinking. Oversimplification does not merely scale down a complex idea to more manageable proportions. It twists and distorts the idea so that it states, not truth, but error. Rather than informing others, oversimplification misleads them.
虽然简化没有问题，但 过度 简化（过度简化）是批判性思维的障碍。过度简化不仅仅是将复杂的想法降低到更易控制的程度。它扭曲和扭曲了这个想法，以至于它说明的不是真理，而是错误。过分简化会误导他们，而不是帮助他人理解。
Let's consider a few examples. The first involves a rather common idea: "If the students haven't learned, the teacher hasn't taught." This asserts that learning is the sole responsibility of the teacher. Are there poor teacher?Of course. Do such teachers confuse students and impede learning? Certainly.However, that is only part of the truth, for there are also lazy or uninterested students who can successfully resist the best efforts of the finest teacher. When they fail, the blame cannot fairly be assigned to the teacher.
我们来看几个例子。第一个涉及一个相当普遍的想法：“ 如果学生没有学过，老师还没有教过 。”这表明学习是老师的责任。有没有不胜任的老师？当然。这样的老师是否会混淆学生并妨碍学习？当然。然而，这只是事实的一部分，因为也有懒惰或无兴趣的学生能够成功抵制最优秀教师的最大努力。当他们失败时，责难不能公平地分配给老师。
In many cases, perhaps most, failure to learn is too complex to place the blame wholly on either side.The students' lack of effort may be a factor and so may the quality of instruction. Also significant may be the attitudes of both students and teacher and the responses these attitudes trigger in the other. In any particular situation, there are likely to be so many variables, in fact, that only a careful accounting of all relevant details will be satisfactory.
在很多情况下，也许大多数情况下，学不会太复杂的内容，不能将责任全部归责于任何一方。学生缺乏努力可能是一个因素，教学质量也可能是一个因素。同样重要的可能是学生和教师的态度以及这些态度在其他方面引发的反应。在任何特定情况下，实际上可能会有如此多的变量，只有对所有相关细节进行认真考虑才能令人满意。
Here is another common idea: "We know ourselves better than others know us."Now in a sense this is true. There is a side of our personalities that we keep to ourselves – many of our hopes and dreams and fantasies. Surely no one else can know all the experiences we have had and all our thoughts and feelings about those experiences. Even those closest to us cannot know everything about us.
还有另一个普遍的想法：“ 我们比别人更了解我们了解自己 。”从某种意义上说，这是事实。我们留给自己的是我们个性的一面 - 我们的许多希望，梦想和幻想。当然，没有人能够知道我们所有的经历以及我们对这些经历的所有想法和感受。即使那些离我们最近的人也无法了解我们的一切。
Yet there is another sense in which others can know us better than we know ourselves. Surely the image we project to others is as much a part of us as our self-image. None of us can really know precisely how we "come through" to others. However objective we become, we remain hopelessly bound up in ourselves, unable to see our outer image apart from our intentions. It often happens that even our own deeper motivations are hidden from us. People who have undergone psychotherapy often learn something about themselves they didn't know before. When that occurs, what precisely has happened? One way or another the therapist has probed into those people's thoughts and attitudes (and perhaps largely forgotten experiences), learned something about them, and then has shared it with them. In other words, for a time, however brief, the therapist has had an insight into the patients that the patients themselves did not have.
然而，还有另一种意识，其他人可以比我们认识的更了解我们自己。我们投向他人的形象肯定是我们自我形象的一部分。我们中的任何人都不能确切知道我们如何“展示”给别人。然而，我们变得客观，我们仍然无法自拔，无法脱离我们的意图去看我们的外在形象。它经常发生，即使我们自己更深层次的动机对我们来说也是隐藏的。经历过心理治疗的人通常会了解一些关于自己的他们以前不知道的事情。当发生这种情况时，究竟发生了什么？治疗师以某种方式探究那些人的思想和态度（也许很多已经忘记了的经验），从中学到了一些东西，然后与他们分享了。换句话说，一段时间，无论简短，治疗师对病人的情况具备病人本身没有的洞察力。
It's careless to judge on impressions alone. Many oversimplifications sound good. "Give people a welfare handout and you make bums of them"is accepted by many people as a profound truth. Yet it is an oversimplification. People whose problem is not misfortune but laziness will undoubtedly be made lazier by receiving welfare. But what effect will welfare have on a responsible person whose situation was caused by misfortune – say, a man stricken with a serious illness leaving him unable to work, or the mother of two small children deserted by her husband? Surely in such cases welfare can be a temporary helping hand that makes the person no less responsible.
仅凭印象来判断是不小心的。许多过度简单化听起来不错。 “ 给人们一份福利，你是让他们堕落 ”被许多人接受为一个深刻的事实。然而这只是过分简单化。人们的问题不是不幸而是懒惰的人无疑会因为获得福利而变得更懒。但福利对一个负责人有什么影响？这个负责人的情况是不幸的 - 比如说，一个患有严重疾病的人他不能工作，或者两个小孩的母亲被她的丈夫抛弃了？当然，在这种情况下，福利可以成为一种暂时的帮助手段，使得人们不负责任。
Similarly, the idea that "compulsory class attendance rules thwart students' maturation" may seem sound to many college students. Yet it omits an important aspect of reality. Too many rules may hamper one's development,but so may too few. Rules requiring students to attend class do not really take away freedom to cut class. They only make the exercise of that freedom more significant. For many students that can be an added motivation to make wise, mature choices.
同样，“ 强制性班级出勤规则阻碍学生成熟 ” 的想法对许多大学生来说听起来很合理。然而它忽略了现实的一个重要方面。过多的规则可能会妨碍个人的发展，但太少也是一样的。要求学生上课的规则并没有真正消除削减课程的自由。他们只会让这种自由的行使 更加重要。对于许多学生来说，这可以成为明智的，成熟的选择的额外动力。
CAUSE OF OVERSIMPLIFICATION
过度简化的原因
The most obvious causes of oversimplification are simple (unhabitual) error and unwillingness to invest the time necessary to probe the complexity of issues.But there are other, deeper, causes as well. One is "mine is better"thinking, which can lead us to see issues in a biased way and thus ignore facts that don't support our view.
过分简单化的最明显原因是简化（不合理）的错误，不愿投入必要的时间来探究问题的复杂性。但还有其他更深层次的原因。一个是“我的是更好”的想法，这可能导致我们以有偏见的方式看问题，从而忽视不支持我们观点的事实。
Another cause is insecurity. If we are intimidated by complexity, we may prefer superficial answers to questions because they make us feel comfortable. Some people need simple answers. Complex situations and those in which judgment can only be tentative and speculative leave such people disoriented.
另一个原因是不安全。如果我们被复杂性所吓倒，我们可能更喜欢肤浅的答案，因为它们让我们感到舒服。有些人需要简单的答案。复杂的情况以及判断只能是试探性和投机性的情况下会让这些人迷失方向。
Still another cause of oversimplification is the habit of seeing only what affects us. When the law of the land required that public restaurants serve any customer, regardless of race, religion, or national origin, some restaurant owners were angry. They reasoned that people who invest their hard-earned money in a business have the right to serve or not serve whomever they please. That side of the issue was so important to them that they regarded it as the only side. But there was another important side: the right of a citizen to have access to a public place.
过分简单化的另一个原因是人们有只看到影响我们的东西的习惯。当土地法要求公共餐厅为任何顾客提供服务时，无论种族，宗教或民族血统，一些餐馆老板都很生气。他们推断，在企业中投入辛苦赚钱的人有权选择服务或不服务任何人。问题的这一方面对他们非常重要，以至于他们认为这是唯一的一方面。但还有另一个重要方面：公民有权进入公共场所。
Similarly, when the Federal Aviation Administration published regulations governing hand gliders and ultralight motorized aircraft, the U.S. Hang Gliders Association attacked the regulations. They argued that the government "has no business regulating an outdoor recreational sport that consists largely of people running and gliding down remote hills and sand dunes." The association was seeing one side of the issue, the side that affected them. Now if that were the only side, their position would be reasonable. But there is another important side to the issue: keeping the airspace safe for all who use it, including commercial and private planes. (The FAA reports that hang gliders have been observed as high as 13,000 feet.) By ignoring that side, the association oversimplified the issue.
同样，当美国联邦航空管理局公布了有关手滑翔机和超轻机动飞机的规定时，美国航行滑翔机协会反对这些规定。他们认为政府“没有任何权利管理户外休闲运动，其中大部分都是跑步和滑行偏远山丘和沙丘的人。” 协会看到问题的一面，影响他们的一面。现在，如果这是唯一的一面，他们的立场是合理的。但是，这个问题还有另一个重要方面：为所有使用空间的人保持空域安全，包括商业和私人飞机。（美国联邦航空局报告称，滑翔伞高达13,000英尺。）由于忽略了这一方面，该协会过分简化了这个问题。
AVOIDING OVER SIMPLIFICATION
避免过度简化
Avoiding oversimplification simply means refusing to overstate the case for an idea.Before you express any idea to others, first check it for accuracy. If it is not completely accurate, rephrase it. Here is how you might revise the oversimplifications discussed in the chapter. (In each case, of course, other effective revisions are possible.)
避免过度简单化简单讲就是避免夸大一个想法。在向其他人表达任何想法之前，请先检查它是否准确。如果它不完全准确，请改述。以下是您本章讨论的可以如何修改过度简化的。（当然，在每种情况下，其他有效的修改都是可能的。）
Oversimplification:
过度简化
If the students haven't learned, the teacher hasn't taught.
如果学生从来没有学到，老师也还没有教过。
Balanced View: The quality of learning is affected, for good or for ill, by the quality of teaching.
平衡观点：学习的质量受到教学质量的影响，无论是好还是坏。
Oversimplification:
过度简化
We know ourselves better than others know us.
我们比别人认识我们更了解自己。
Balanced View: We know some things about ourselves better than others can know them.
平衡观点： 我们比其他人能够了解他们更了解我们自己的一些事情。
Oversimplification:
过度简化
Give people a welfare handout and you make bums of them.
给人们一份福利支持，你会让他们游手好闲。
Balanced View: Many people are corrupted by welfare.
平衡观点： 许多人被福利损害。
Oversimplification:
过度简化
Compulsory class attendance rules thwart students' maturation.
强制课程出勤规则阻碍了学生的成熟。
Balanced View: Attendance rules that are too numerous or to origid can thwart students' maturation.
平衡观点： 太多或太严格的出勤规则可能会阻碍学生的成熟。
As these examples show, the effort to avoid oversimplification will reward you with views that are more reasonable, and therefore easier to defend.
正如这些例子所显示的，避免过度简化的努力将会奖励您更合理的观点，因此更容易进行辩护。
APPLICATIONS
应用
Analyze each of the following ideas. Decide whether it is an oversimplification. Explain your reasoning carefully.
分析以下每个想法。判断这是否过于简单化。仔细解释你的推理。
"I need only consult with myself with regard to what I wish to do; what I feel to be right is right, what I feel to be wrong is wrong." (Jean Jacques Rousseau)
“我只需要决定我自己想做什么事情;我认为是正确的就对，我认为是错误的就是错误的。” （让·雅克·卢梭）
Elected officials should be held accountable to a higher ethical standard than the average citizen is.
当选官员应该比一般公民用更高的道德标准要求自己。
The scandals involving television ministries prove what many critics have noted for years – that televangelists are hypocrites.
涉及电视部门的丑闻证明了许多批评家多年来注意到的事实 - 电视传播者是伪善者。
Guns don't kill people; people kill people.
枪不杀人; 人们杀人。
Apply your critical thinking to each of the following cases, being sure to avoid oversimplification.
将您的批判性思维应用于以下每种情况，确保避免过分简单化。
The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that states must provide free public education not only to all children of citizens and aliens legally residing in this country but to the children of illegal aliens as well. Do you support this decision?
美国最高法院裁定，各州不仅应向所有合法居住在该国的公民和外国人的子女提供免费的公共教育，还应向非法居住的外国人的子女提供免费的公共教育。你支持这个决定吗？
As many as 50 percent of those teaching high school math and science lack the proper qualifications. The problem is that qualified math and science teachers are leaving teaching for higher-paying jobs in industry.
在高中数学和科学教学中，多达50％的教师缺乏适当的资格。问题在于，合格的数学和理科教师正在因为工业中的高薪工作离开教学。
To attract qualified teachers, some experts propose that schools offer math and science teachers, some experts propose that schools offer math and science teachers a special salary scale, higher that offered to teachers in other disciplines. Do you support this proposal?
为了吸引合格的教师，一些专家提出学校提供数学和理科教师，一些专家提出学校为数学和理科教师提供一种特殊的薪水，高于为其他学科教师提供的薪水。你支持这个提议吗？
In some states the law now requires motorists to secure each young child riding in their cars in an approved child restraint seat. Do you support such mandatory restraint laws?
在一些州，法律现在要求驾车者将每名年幼的儿童必须乘坐在经批准的儿童安全座椅上。你支持这种强制性克制法吗？
Some conservative Christian churches practice snake handling as a part of their religious rituals. That is, they pass poisonous snakes like moccasins and rattlers from one person to another as a test of their religious faith. This practice of snake handling, however, is illegal in all states but one, West Virginia. Should it made illegal there too?
一些保守的基督教教堂将蛇传递作为其宗教仪式的一部分。也就是说，他们将毒蛇从一个人传递到另一个人身上，作为他们宗教信仰的考验。但是，这种蛇传递的做法在西弗吉尼亚州之外的所有州都是非法的。它也应该在那里违法吗？
Women employees of the National Broadcasting Company are eligible for six months of maternity leave with job and seniority guarantees. However, when a male engineer with the company applied for paternity leave with the same guarantees (so that he could care for his baby and ease his wife's return to work), he was turned down. Is the idea of paternity leave a reasonable one?
全国广播公司的女性雇员有资格获得六个月的带有工作和资历保证的产假。然而，当公司的一位男性工程师以相同的保证申请陪产假时（这样他可以照顾他的孩子并减轻他妻子的重返工作），他被拒绝了。父子的想法是否合理？
A minister in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, proposed some years ago that convicted murderers be executed public lyon prime time television. The chock of seeing such executions, he reasoned, would deter others from crime. Do you agree?
伊利诺伊州霍夫曼庄园的一位部长几年前提出，在黄金时间电视上公开执行定罪的凶手。他推断，看到这种处决的阻塞会阻止其他人的犯罪行为。 你同意吗？
Group discussion exercise: Select one of the cases you analyzed inapplication 2 and discuss it with two or three of your classmates. Try to reach a consensus, but be careful to avoid oversimplification. Be prepared to present your idea(s) to the class.
小组讨论练习：选择你在应用2中分析的一个案例，并与两个或三个同学讨论。尽量达成共识，但要小心避免过分简化。准备好向班级介绍你的想法。
这个系列是对超越感觉：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻译练习，如果觉得有帮助可以点链接购买第九版中文，英文原版在这里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英语）
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