写在前面: 我曾经多次吐槽过一些论文的句子过长,结构过于复杂。除去作者的部分原因外,我想跟自身的英语 基础 太差有关。为了不抵触这类长难句,我决定补一补英语语法。
请注意本文题目为 摘记, 所以文字大多出于原文( 如有违权,请及时联系删除 )。边抄录边揣摩有助于学习作者遣词造句的手法和行文逻辑,对自己以后写文章也是大有好处的。
目录
- 简化为 Ving 补语
- 1.1 连接词是否保留
- 1.2 所谓“分词构句”
- 1.3 没有 be 动词与助动词时
- 1.4 应该省略的连接词
- 1.5 应该保留的连接词
- 1.6 being 的运用
- 1.7 时态的问题
- 1.8 悬荡修饰语的错误
- 1.9 独立短语
- 1.10 保留主语时的注意事项
- 简化为 Ven 补语
- 2.1 连接词是否保留
- 2.2 三个特殊的连接词”
- 2.3 如何应用 having been
- 2.4 主语不同时
- 2.5 简化为 to V
- 单纯的 be 动词
- 3.1 介系词短语
- 3.2 形容词
- 3.3 名词
- 改为介系词短语
本章探讨的是比较复杂的副词从句简化。在此重复一下 重要的观念:所有从属从句简化的原则都一样,即为求精简,把从属从句的主语与 be
动词省略,只留下补语。省略主语是为了避免重复,但如果省略会造成句意模糊,主语就得另行处理;省略 be
动词是因为它本身没有任何意义。
- 简化为 Ving 补语
-
While he was lying on the couch,the boy fell asleep.
-
While lying on the couch, the boy fell asleep.
1.1 连接词是否保留
副词从句因为已经简化,不再有主语、动词,所以上例中它的连接词 while
也没有存在的必要。不过,副词从句的连接词除了语法功能之外,还有词义的功能, 至于保留与否则完全取决于修辞上是否清楚。简化是为了让句子更简洁,可是绝不可伤害清楚性。在句子够清楚的前提下,副词从句的连接词可以一并省去,上例即成为:
- Lying on the couch,the boy fell asleep.
1.2 所谓“分词构句”
以例 2
而言,省去 while
之后,句子仍然清楚,不过传统语法学家解释起来就大费周章。他们只看到 lying on the couch
是 现在分词短语,属于形容词类,但显然不是用来修饰名词类的 the boy
(它不是用来特别指出哪一个男孩),而是修饰动词类的 fell(
用来说明是何时、在何种状态下睡着)。以形容词修饰动词,这不是犯了词类错误吗?面对这个矛盾,语法学家于是创造了一个名称:分词构句 —— lying on the couch
这个分词短语本身就构成一个从句,一个修饰动词fell的副词从句。
1.3 没有 be 动词与助动词时
-
Because we have nothing to do here,we might as well go home.
-
Because we are having nothing to do here, we might as well go home (加 be 动词)
-
Having nothing to do here, we might as well go home.(省略连接词、be动词和主语)
1.4 应该省略的连接词
在做这种简化动作时,表示 原因 的连接词 because、since
等等通常要省略,若保留下来会显得相当刺眼。因为这种句型本身就强烈暗示因果关系,再加上because
会十分累赘。
1.5 应该保留的连接词
反之,如果连接词省略会造成句意不清,就得保留,例如:
-
Although we have nothing to do here,we can't leave early.(虽然这儿没事,我们还是不能提早离开。)
-
Although having nothing to do here,we can't leave early.
1.6 being 的运用
-
As I am a student,I can't afford to get married.
-
Being a student,I can't afford to get married.
1.7 时态的问题
简化副词从句还得注意时态问题,例如:
-
After he wrote the letter, he put it to mail.(他写好了信,就拿去邮寄。)
-
After writing the letter, he put it to mail.
简化的步骤仍是省去相同的主语 he
,把普通动词改为 Ving
。如果像例 1
选择把连接词 after
留下来,就可以清楚分出先后顺序,是正确的简化从句。附带一提的是,after
在从句简化后即成为介系词,后面要接名词。writing the letter
是动名词短语,可以符合词类要求。然而若把连接词 after
一并省略就会出现问题:
- Writing the letter, he put it to mail (他正在写信的时候,拿去邮寄。)(误)
因为 after
省略了,读者看到的印象会是:
- When he was writing the letter, he put it to mail.(他正在写信的时候,拿去邮寄。)
这就不合理了。读者在看不到连接词时,会假设时间副词从句的连接词是when
。所以如果要省略 after
,在时态上要做如下的处理:
- Having written the letter, he put it to mail.
这是用完成式与简单式的对比来交代写信在先,邮寄在后。句子还原后就能看得更清楚:
- When he had written the letter,he put it to mail.
1.8 悬荡修饰语的错误
副词从句的简化有一个相当严格的要求:主语只有在与主要从句相同时才可省略。如果忽略这一点就径行省略,会产生语法、修辞的错误。这项错误一不小心就会发生,修辞学中甚至有一个特别的名称来称呼它:Dangling Modifiers
( 悬荡修饰语 )。请看下例:
-
When the child was already sleeping soundly in bed,her mother came to kiss her goodnight.
-
Already sleeping soundly in bed, her mother came to kiss her (误)
1.9 独立短语
副词从句简化时,若主语与主要从句不同就不能省略。这时可以选择保留主语,只省略 be
动词和连接词。在主语后面保留现在分词或过去分词的补语。上面的例子可以修改如下:
- The child already sleeping soundly in bed,her mother came to kiss her goodnight.
传统语法称这种 保留主语的简化副词从句 为“ 独立短语 ”。那是把already sleeping soundly in bed
视为 形容词短语 看待,修饰前面的 名词 the child
。可是名词 the child
就无法成功纳入主要从句来诠释。“独立短语”的名称就是这样来的——无法纳入主要从句中,就叫 它“独立”好了!
1.10 保留主语时的注意事项
简化副词从句时,如果主语不同而需保留,有两点必须注意:
-
第一,连接词 要省略。简化从句一般是省略主语、
be
动词与连接词 (视情形决定是否省略)。如果主语要保留,连接词又留下,就只是省掉一个be
动词,那么并没有达到简化的效果,反而像写错了(因为漏了be
动词) -
第二件注意事项是:后面必须配合 分词补语(现在分词或过去分词)。因为只有如此,才可明显看出这是省略
be
动词的简化从句。
- 简化为 Ven 补语
- After he was shot in the knee,he couldn't fight.
- Shot in the knee,he couldn't fight.
2.1 连接词是否保留
上例中连接词 after
可以不留,因为 shot
是过去分词,本身就表示“已经中枪”、“中枪之后”,已有完成式的暗示,因而不再需要 after
—词。但下面的例子则不同:
- Although he was shot in the knee, he killed three more enemy soldiers.
句中连接词 although
带有“相反”的暗示,省去后意思会有出入,应该予以保留:
- Although shot in the knee, he killed three more enemy soldiers.
或者,如果省略 although
的话,也必须用其他方式来表示句中的“相反”暗示,例如:
- Shot in the knee, he still killed three more enemy soldiers.
2.2 三个特殊的连接词”
连接词如果要留下来,要注意一点:before、after、since
这三个连接词也可以当 介系词 用。如果其中任何一个出现在简化从句中,由于没有了主语、动词,这个连接词就得当介系词看待,亦即:后面要接 名词.
-
Before it was redecorated,the house was in bad shape.
-
Before redecorated, the house was in bad shape.(误)
上句的错误在于 before
此时是介系词,后面却只有形容词类的 redecorated
,造成语法错误。修改的办法是改变 redecorated
的词性。若要保留它的被动态,就不能作 词尾的词类变化,只能在前面加being
来作词类变化。
- Before being redecorated, the house was in bad shape.
2.3 主语不同时
-
When the coffin had been interred,the minister said a few comforting words.(棺材入土后,牧师说了几句安慰的话。)
-
(Having been) interred, the minister said a few comforting words. ( 误)
-
The coffin (having been) interred,the minister said a few comforting words.(正)
2.4 简化为 to V
如果原来的副词从句中有语气助动词(can、should、must
之类),带有不确定语气,简化之后就会成为不定词。例如:
-
He studied hard in order that he could get a scholarship.
-
He studied hard in order to get a scholarship.
- 单纯的 be 动词
如果副词从句的动词是单纯的 be
动词,后面可能是一般的名词、形容词类的补语。要简化时,首先得注意主语要和主要从句的主语相同,然后才可以把 连接词 留下来,省去 主语和be动词,留下补语。例如:
3.1 介系词短语
-
When you are under attack, you must take cover immediately.
-
When under attack, you must take cover immediately.
3.2 形容词
-
While it is small in size,the company is very competitive.
-
While small in size, the company is very competitive.
3.3 名词
-
Although he was a doctor by training,Asimov became a writer.
-
Although a doctor by training, Asimov became a writer.
- 改为介系词短语
观察以上三种情形,可以作一归纳:副词从句的连接词不同于名词从句或形容词从句,是有意义的连接词,简化时常要留下来。不过有两点需要注意:
-
如果连接词是
before
与after
之类,简化后成为介系词,后面只能接名词类。 -
另外,表示原因的连接词
because
与sine
,简化后通常不能原样留下来,要改成because of, as a result of
之类的 介系词.
副词从句改写为介系词短语,是大幅度的简化。许多连接词都找得到近似的介系词。
▲ 例1
:
- When she arrived at the party,she found all the people gone.
- Upon arriving at the party, she found all the people gone.(简化1)
- Upon her arrival at the party, she found all the people gone.(简化2)
与连接词 when
近似的介系词有 on
和 upon
。所以原句可以简化成句子 2
。 不过也可以改成 介系词短语,称为句子 3
▲ 例2
:
-
When she completed the project, she was promoted.
-
Upon completing the project,she was promoted.
可是动词 complete
如改成名词 completion
,就会有问题:
- Upon completion the project, she was promoted.(误)
错误在于complete
的后面有宾语 the project
。一旦变成名词的 completion
,原来的宾语就无所归依,所以要再加介系词 of
来处理:
- Upon completion of the project,she was promoted.
▲ 例3
:
-
The construction work was delayed because it had been raining.
-
The construction work was delayed because of rain.
▲ 例4
:
- Althought he opposed it,the plan was carried out.
例句中连接词 although
和介系词 despite
或 in spite of
意思接近,可以改为:
- Despite his opposition,the plan was carried out.
▲ 例5
:
- If there should be a fire, the sprinkler will be started.
例句中的连接词if和介系词 in case of
近似。改写后,副词从句中的 there should be
这几个没有内容的词都要省略,只要把有意义的 fire
—词放进去就好:
- In case of a fire, the sprinkler will be started.
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