【算法笔记】各种排序基础（续）

以下内容部分来自极客时间 -王争-数据结构与算法之美 的学习笔记，在上面有延伸拓展

算法和数据结构系列文章：
【算法和数据结构基础知识】各种排序基础
【算法和数据结构基础知识】树和二叉树相关基础
【算法和数据结构基础知识】字符串匹配
【算法和数据结构基础知识】线性表基础
【算法和数据结构基础知识】Some pieces of code
【算法和数据结构基础知识】队列相关基础
【算法和数据结构基础知识】C语言基础

在上次的文章【算法和数据结构基础知识】各种排序基础中讲述了一些基础的排序算法，（冒泡、插入、选择 时间复杂度：O(n^2) 基于比较）本篇将继续进行整理学习，包含（快排、归并 时间复杂度 ：O(nlogn) 基于比较）。

一、分治思想

1.分治思想

分治，就是分而治之，将一个大问题分解成小的子问题来解决，小的子问题解决了，大问题也就解决了。

2.分治与递归的区别

分治算法一般都用递归来实现的。分治是一种解决问题的处理思想，递归是一种编程技巧。

二、归并排序

1.算法原理

先把数组从中间分成前后两部分，然后对前后两部分分别进行排序，再将排序好的两部分合并到一起，这样整个数组就有序了。这就是归并排序的核心思想。如何用递归实现归并排序呢？

写递归代码的技巧就是分写得出递推公式，然后找到终止条件，最后将递推公式翻译成递归代码。递推公式怎么写？如下
递推公式：mergeSort(lo…hi) = merge(mergeSort(lo…mid), mergeSort(mid+1…hi))
终止条件：lo >= hi 不用再继续分解

2.代码实现

参考《算法 4》里提供的java实现：自顶向下的递归版本的归并排序，时间复杂度nlog n

这是对应的例子：

/******************************************************************************
 *  Compilation:  javac Merge.java
 *  Execution:    java Merge < input.txt
 *  Dependencies: StdOut.java StdIn.java
 *  Data files:   https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort/tiny.txt
 *                https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort/words3.txt
 *   
 *  Sorts a sequence of strings from standard input using mergesort.
 *   
 *  % more tiny.txt
 *  S O R T E X A M P L E
 *
 *  % java Merge < tiny.txt
 *  A E E L M O P R S T X                 [ one string per line ]
 *    
 *  % more words3.txt
 *  bed bug dad yes zoo ... all bad yet
 *  
 *  % java Merge < words3.txt
 *  all bad bed bug dad ... yes yet zoo    [ one string per line ]
 *  
 ******************************************************************************/

package com.anthony.algo;

import edu.princeton.cs.algs4.MergeX;
import edu.princeton.cs.algs4.StdIn;
import edu.princeton.cs.algs4.StdOut;

/**
 *  The {@code Merge} class provides static methods for sorting an
 *  array using a top-down, recursive version of <em>mergesort</em>.
 *  <p>
 *  This implementation takes &Theta;(<em>n</em> log <em>n</em>) time
 *  to sort any array of length <em>n</em> (assuming comparisons
 *  take constant time). It makes between
 *  ~ &frac12; <em>n</em> log<sub>2</sub> <em>n</em> and
 *  ~ 1 <em>n</em> log<sub>2</sub> <em>n</em> compares.
 *  <p>
 *  This sorting algorithm is stable.
 *  It uses &Theta;(<em>n</em>) extra memory (not including the input array).
 *  <p>
 *  For additional documentation, see
 *  <a href="https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort">Section 2.2</a> of
 *  <i>Algorithms, 4th Edition</i> by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *  For an optimized version, see {@link MergeX}.
 *
 *  @author Robert Sedgewick
 *  @author Kevin Wayne
 */
public class Merge {

    // This class should not be instantiated.
    private Merge() { }

    // stably merge a[lo .. mid] with a[mid+1 ..hi] using aux[lo .. hi]
    private static void merge(Comparable[] a, Comparable[] aux, int lo, int mid, int hi) {
        // precondition: a[lo .. mid] and a[mid+1 .. hi] are sorted subarrays
        assert isSorted(a, lo, mid);
        assert isSorted(a, mid+1, hi);

        // copy to aux[]
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            aux[k] = a[k]; 
        }

        // merge back to a[]
        int i = lo, j = mid+1;
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            if      (i > mid)              a[k] = aux[j++]; //左半边用尽（取右边元素）
            else if (j > hi)               a[k] = aux[i++]; //右半边用尽（取左边元素）
            else if (less(aux[j], aux[i])) a[k] = aux[j++];//右半边当前元素小于左半边当前元素（取右边元素）
            else                           a[k] = aux[i++];//右半边当前元素大于等于左半边当前元素（取左边元素）
        }

        // postcondition: a[lo .. hi] is sorted
        assert isSorted(a, lo, hi);
    }

    // mergesort a[lo..hi] using auxiliary array aux[lo..hi]
    private static void mergeSort(Comparable[] a, Comparable[] aux, int lo, int hi) {
        if (hi <= lo) return;
        int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
        mergeSort(a, aux, lo, mid);
        mergeSort(a, aux, mid + 1, hi);
        merge(a, aux, lo, mid, hi);
    }

    /**
     * Rearranges the array in ascending order, using the natural order.
     * @param a the array to be sorted
     */
    public static void mergeSort(Comparable[] a) {
        Comparable[] aux = new Comparable[a.length];
        mergeSort(a, aux, 0, a.length-1);
        assert isSorted(a);
    }


   /***************************************************************************
    *  Helper sorting function.
    ***************************************************************************/
    
    // is v < w ?
    private static boolean less(Comparable v, Comparable w) {
        return v.compareTo(w) < 0;
    }
        
   /***************************************************************************
    *  Check if array is sorted - useful for debugging.
    ***************************************************************************/
    private static boolean isSorted(Comparable[] a) {
        return isSorted(a, 0, a.length - 1);
    }

    private static boolean isSorted(Comparable[] a, int lo, int hi) {
        for (int i = lo + 1; i <= hi; i++)
            if (less(a[i], a[i-1])) return false;
        return true;
    }


   /***************************************************************************
    *  Index mergesort.
    ***************************************************************************/
    // stably merge a[lo .. mid] with a[mid+1 .. hi] using aux[lo .. hi]
    private static void merge(Comparable[] a, int[] index, int[] aux, int lo, int mid, int hi) {

        // copy to aux[]
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            aux[k] = index[k]; 
        }

        // merge back to a[]
        int i = lo, j = mid+1;
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            if      (i > mid)                    index[k] = aux[j++];
            else if (j > hi)                     index[k] = aux[i++];
            else if (less(a[aux[j]], a[aux[i]])) index[k] = aux[j++];
            else                                 index[k] = aux[i++];
        }
    }

    /**
     * Returns a permutation that gives the elements in the array in ascending order.
     * @param a the array
     * @return a permutation {@code p[]} such that {@code a[p[0]]}, {@code a[p[1]]},
     *    ..., {@code a[p[N-1]]} are in ascending order
     */
    public static int[] indexSort(Comparable[] a) {
        int n = a.length;
        int[] index = new int[n];
        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
            index[i] = i;

        int[] aux = new int[n];
        mergeSort(a, index, aux, 0, n-1);
        return index;
    }

    // mergesort a[lo..hi] using auxiliary array aux[lo..hi]
    private static void mergeSort(Comparable[] a, int[] index, int[] aux, int lo, int hi) {
        if (hi <= lo) return;
        int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
        mergeSort(a, index, aux, lo, mid);
        mergeSort(a, index, aux, mid + 1, hi);
        merge(a, index, aux, lo, mid, hi);
    }

    // print array to standard output
    private static void show(Comparable[] a) {
        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
            StdOut.println(a[i]);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Reads in a sequence of strings from standard input; mergesorts them; 
     * and prints them to standard output in ascending order. 
     *
     * @param args the command-line arguments
     */
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        String[] a = StdIn.readAllStrings();
        Merge.mergeSort(a);
        show(a);
    }
}

/******************************************************************************
 *  Copyright 2002-2020, Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *
 *  This file is part of algs4.jar, which accompanies the textbook
 *
 *      Algorithms, 4th edition by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne,
 *      Addison-Wesley Professional, 2011, ISBN 0-321-57351-X.
 *      http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu
 *
 *
 *  algs4.jar is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
 *  it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
 *  the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
 *  (at your option) any later version.
 *
 *  algs4.jar is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
 *  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
 *  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
 *  GNU General Public License for more details.
 *
 *  You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
 *  along with algs4.jar.  If not, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses.
 ******************************************************************************/

《算法 4》 中还提供了自底向上的归并排序，和优化版的归并排序（当元素个数小于8个的时候，采用插入排序），代码贴在文章底部。

3.性能分析

1）算法稳定性：
归并排序稳不稳定关键要看merge()函数，也就是两个子数组合并成一个有序数组的那部分代码。在合并的过程中，如果 A[lo…mid] 和 A[mid+1…hi] 之间有值相同的元素，那我们就可以像伪代码中那样，先把 A[lo…mid] 中的元素放入tmp数组，这样 就保证了值相同的元素，在合并前后的先后顺序不变。所以，归并排序是一种稳定排序算法。

2）时间复杂度：分析归并排序的时间复杂度就是分析递归代码的时间复杂度
如何分析递归代码的时间复杂度？
递归的适用场景是一个问题a可以分解为多个子问题b、c，那求解问题a就可以分解为求解问题b、c。问题b、c解决之后，我们再把b、c的结果合并成a的结果。若定义求解问题a的时间是T(a)，则求解问题b、c的时间分别是T(b)和T(c)，那就可以得到这样的递推公式：T(a) = T(b) + T(c) + K，其中K等于将两个子问题b、c的结果合并成问题a的结果所消耗的时间。这里有一个重要的结论：不仅递归求解的问题可以写成递推公式，递归代码的时间复杂度也可以写成递推公式。套用这个公式，那么归并排序的时间复杂度就可以表示为：
T(1) = C； n=1 时，只需要常量级的执行时间，所以表示为 C。
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n； n>1，其中n就是merge()函数合并两个子数组的的时间复杂度O(n)。
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n
= 2(2T(n/4) + n/2) + n = 4T(n/4) + 2n
= 4(2T(n/8) + n/4) + 2n = 8T(n/8) + 3n
= 8(2T(n/16) + n/8) + 3n = 16T(n/16) + 4n
......
= 2^k * T(n/2^k) + k * n
......
当T(n/2^k)=T(1) 时，也就是 n/2^k=1，我们得到k=log2n。将k带入上面的公式就得到T(n)=Cn+nlog2n。如用大O表示法，T(n)就等于O(nlogn)。所以，归并排序的是复杂度时间复杂度就是O(nlogn)。

3）空间复杂度：归并排序算法不是原地排序算法，空间复杂度是O(n)
为什么？因为归并排序的合并函数，在合并两个数组为一个有序数组时，需要借助额外的存储空间,比如上方的aux[]。为什么空间复杂度是O(n)而不是O(nlogn)呢？如果我们按照分析递归的时间复杂度的方法，通过递推公式来求解，那整个归并过程需要的空间复杂度就是O(nlogn)，但这种分析思路是有问题的！

因为，在实际上，递归代码的空间复杂度并不是像时间复杂度那样累加，而是这样的过程，即在每次合并过程中都需要申请额外的内存空间，但是合并完成后，临时开辟的内存空间就被释放掉了，在任意时刻，CPU只会有一个函数在执行，也就只会有一个临时的内存空间在使用。临时空间再大也不会超过n个数据的大小，所以空间复杂度是O(n)。

三、快速排序

1.算法原理

快排的思想是这样的：如果要排序数组中下标从p到r之间的一组数据，我们选择p到r之间的任意一个数据作为pivot（分区点）。然后遍历p到r之间的数据，将小于pivot的放到左边，将大于pivot的放到右边，将povit放到中间。经过这一步之后，数组p到r之间的数据就分成了3部分，前面p到q-1之间都是小于povit的，中间是povit，后面的q+1到r之间是大于povit的。根据分治、递归的处理思想，我们可以用递归排序下标从p到q-1之间的数据和下标从q+1到r之间的数据，直到区间缩小为1，就说明所有的数据都有序了。
递推公式：quick_sort(p…r) = quick_sort(p…q-1) + quick_sort(q+1, r)
终止条件：p >= r

2.代码实现

来自《算法 4 》

/******************************************************************************
 *  Compilation:  javac Quick.java
 *  Execution:    java Quick < input.txt
 *  Dependencies: StdOut.java StdIn.java
 *  Data files:   https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/23quicksort/tiny.txt
 *                https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/23quicksort/words3.txt
 *
 *  Sorts a sequence of strings from standard input using quicksort.
 *   
 *  % more tiny.txt
 *  S O R T E X A M P L E
 *
 *  % java Quick < tiny.txt
 *  A E E L M O P R S T X                 [ one string per line ]
 *
 *  % more words3.txt
 *  bed bug dad yes zoo ... all bad yet
 *       
 *  % java Quick < words3.txt
 *  all bad bed bug dad ... yes yet zoo    [ one string per line ]
 *
 *
 *  Remark: For a type-safe version that uses static generics, see
 *
 *    https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/23quicksort/QuickPedantic.java
 *
 ******************************************************************************/

package edu.princeton.cs.algs4;

/**
 *  The {@code Quick} class provides static methods for sorting an
 *  array and selecting the ith smallest element in an array using quicksort.
 *  <p>
 *  For additional documentation,
 *  see <a href="https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/23quick">Section 2.3</a> of
 *  <i>Algorithms, 4th Edition</i> by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *
 *  @author Robert Sedgewick
 *  @author Kevin Wayne
 */
public class Quick {

    // This class should not be instantiated.
    private Quick() { }

    /**
     * Rearranges the array in ascending order, using the natural order.
     * @param a the array to be sorted
     */
    public static void sort(Comparable[] a) {
        StdRandom.shuffle(a);
        sort(a, 0, a.length - 1);
        assert isSorted(a);
    }

    // quicksort the subarray from a[lo] to a[hi]
    private static void sort(Comparable[] a, int lo, int hi) { 
        if (hi <= lo) return;
        int j = partition(a, lo, hi);
        sort(a, lo, j-1);
        sort(a, j+1, hi);
        assert isSorted(a, lo, hi);
    }

    // partition the subarray a[lo..hi] so that a[lo..j-1] <= a[j] <= a[j+1..hi]
    // and return the index j.
    private static int partition(Comparable[] a, int lo, int hi) {
        int i = lo;
        int j = hi + 1;
        Comparable v = a[lo];
        while (true) { 

            // find item on lo to swap
            while (less(a[++i], v)) {
                if (i == hi) break;
            }

            // find item on hi to swap
            while (less(v, a[--j])) {
                if (j == lo) break;      // redundant since a[lo] acts as sentinel
            }

            // check if pointers cross
            if (i >= j) break;

            exch(a, i, j);
        }

        // put partitioning item v at a[j]
        exch(a, lo, j);

        // now, a[lo .. j-1] <= a[j] <= a[j+1 .. hi]
        return j;
    }

    /**
     * Rearranges the array so that {@code a[k]} contains the kth smallest key;
     * {@code a[0]} through {@code a[k-1]} are less than (or equal to) {@code a[k]}; and
     * {@code a[k+1]} through {@code a[n-1]} are greater than (or equal to) {@code a[k]}.
     *
     * @param  a the array
     * @param  k the rank of the key
     * @return the key of rank {@code k}
     * @throws IllegalArgumentException unless {@code 0 <= k < a.length}
     */
    public static Comparable select(Comparable[] a, int k) {
        if (k < 0 || k >= a.length) {
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("index is not between 0 and " + a.length + ": " + k);
        }
        StdRandom.shuffle(a);
        int lo = 0, hi = a.length - 1;
        while (hi > lo) {
            int i = partition(a, lo, hi);
            if      (i > k) hi = i - 1;
            else if (i < k) lo = i + 1;
            else return a[i];
        }
        return a[lo];
    }



   /***************************************************************************
    *  Helper sorting functions.
    ***************************************************************************/
    
    // is v < w ?
    private static boolean less(Comparable v, Comparable w) {
        if (v == w) return false;   // optimization when reference equals
        return v.compareTo(w) < 0;
    }
        
    // exchange a[i] and a[j]
    private static void exch(Object[] a, int i, int j) {
        Object swap = a[i];
        a[i] = a[j];
        a[j] = swap;
    }


   /***************************************************************************
    *  Check if array is sorted - useful for debugging.
    ***************************************************************************/
    private static boolean isSorted(Comparable[] a) {
        return isSorted(a, 0, a.length - 1);
    }

    private static boolean isSorted(Comparable[] a, int lo, int hi) {
        for (int i = lo + 1; i <= hi; i++)
            if (less(a[i], a[i-1])) return false;
        return true;
    }


    // print array to standard output
    private static void show(Comparable[] a) {
        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
            StdOut.println(a[i]);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Reads in a sequence of strings from standard input; quicksorts them; 
     * and prints them to standard output in ascending order. 
     * Shuffles the array and then prints the strings again to
     * standard output, but this time, using the select method.
     *
     * @param args the command-line arguments
     */
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        String[] a = StdIn.readAllStrings();
        Quick.sort(a);
        show(a);
        assert isSorted(a);

        // shuffle
        StdRandom.shuffle(a);

        // display results again using select
        StdOut.println();
        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
            String ith = (String) Quick.select(a, i);
            StdOut.println(ith);
        }
    }

}

/******************************************************************************
 *  Copyright 2002-2020, Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *
 *  This file is part of algs4.jar, which accompanies the textbook
 *
 *      Algorithms, 4th edition by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne,
 *      Addison-Wesley Professional, 2011, ISBN 0-321-57351-X.
 *      http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu
 *
 *
 *  algs4.jar is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
 *  it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
 *  the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
 *  (at your option) any later version.
 *
 *  algs4.jar is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
 *  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
 *  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
 *  GNU General Public License for more details.
 *
 *  You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
 *  along with algs4.jar.  If not, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses.
 ******************************************************************************/

3.性能分析

1）算法稳定性：
因为分区过程中涉及交换操作，如果数组中有两个8，其中一个是pivot，经过分区处理后，后面的8就有可能放到了另一个8的前面，先后顺序就颠倒了，所以快速排序是不稳定的排序算法。比如数组[1,2,3,9,8,11,8]，取后面的8作为pivot，那么分区后就会将后面的8与9进行交换。
2）时间复杂度：最好、最坏、平均情况
快排也是用递归实现的，所以时间复杂度也可以用递推公式表示。
如果每次分区操作都能正好把数组分成大小接近相等的两个小区间，那快排的时间复杂度递推求解公式跟归并的相同。
T(1) = C； n=1 时，只需要常量级的执行时间，所以表示为 C。
T(n) = 2*T(n/2) + n； n>1
所以，快排的时间复杂度也是O(nlogn)。
如果数组中的元素原来已经有序了，比如1，3，5，6，8，若每次选择最后一个元素作为pivot，那每次分区得到的两个区间都是不均等的，需要进行大约n次的分区，才能完成整个快排过程，而每次分区我们平均要扫描大约n/2个元素，这种情况下，快排的时间复杂度就是O(n^2)。
前面两种情况，一个是分区及其均衡，一个是分区极不均衡，它们分别对应了快排的最好情况时间复杂度和最坏情况时间复杂度。那快排的平均时间复杂度是多少呢？T(n)大部分情况下是O(nlogn)，只有在极端情况下才是退化到O(n^2)，而且我们也有很多方法将这个概率降低。
3）空间复杂度：快排是一种原地排序算法，空间复杂度是O(1)

四、归并排序与快速排序的区别

归并和快排用的都是分治思想，递推公式和递归代码也非常相似，那它们的区别在哪里呢？
1.归并排序，是先递归调用，再进行合并，合并的时候进行数据的交换。所以它是自下而上的排序方式。何为自下而上？就是先解决子问题，再解决父问题。
2.快速排序，是先分区，在递归调用，分区的时候进行数据的交换。所以它是自上而下的排序方式。何为自上而下？就是先解决父问题，再解决子问题。

五、思考

1.O(n)时间复杂度内求无序数组中第K大元素，比如4，2，5，12，3这样一组数据，第3大元素是4。
我们选择数组区间A[0...n-1]的最后一个元素作为pivot，对数组A[0...n-1]进行原地分区，这样数组就分成了3部分，A[0...p-1]、A[p]、A[p+1...n-1]。
如果如果p+1=K，那A[p]就是要求解的元素；如果K>p+1，说明第K大元素出现在A[p+1...n-1]区间，我们按照上面的思路递归地在A[p+1...n-1]这个区间查找。同理，如果K<p+1，那我们就在A[0...p-1]区间查找。
时间复杂度分析？
第一次分区查找，我们需要对大小为n的数组进行分区操作，需要遍历n个元素。第二次分区查找，我们需要对大小为n/2的数组执行分区操作，需要遍历n/2个元素。依次类推，分区遍历元素的个数分别为n、n/2、n/4、n/8、n/16......直到区间缩小为1。如果把每次分区遍历的元素个数累加起来，就是等比数列求和，结果为2n-1。所以，上述解决问题的思路为O(n)。
2.有10个访问日志文件，每个日志文件大小约为300MB，每个文件里的日志都是按照时间戳从小到大排序的。现在需要将这10个较小的日志文件合并为1个日志文件，合并之后的日志仍然按照时间戳从小到大排列。如果处理上述任务的机器内存只有1GB，你有什么好的解决思路能快速地将这10个日志文件合并？

其他代码

自底向上的归并排序

/******************************************************************************
 *  Compilation:  javac MergeBU.java
 *  Execution:    java MergeBU < input.txt
 *  Dependencies: StdOut.java StdIn.java
 *  Data files:   https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort/tiny.txt
 *                https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort/words3.txt
 *   
 *  Sorts a sequence of strings from standard input using
 *  bottom-up mergesort.
 *   
 *  % more tiny.txt
 *  S O R T E X A M P L E
 *
 *  % java MergeBU < tiny.txt
 *  A E E L M O P R S T X                 [ one string per line ]
 *    
 *  % more words3.txt
 *  bed bug dad yes zoo ... all bad yet
 *  
 *  % java MergeBU < words3.txt
 *  all bad bed bug dad ... yes yet zoo    [ one string per line ]
 *
 ******************************************************************************/

package edu.princeton.cs.algs4;

/**
 *  The {@code MergeBU} class provides static methods for sorting an
 *  array using <em>bottom-up mergesort</em>. It is non-recursive.
 *  <p>
 *  This implementation takes &Theta;(<em>n</em> log <em>n</em>) time
 *  to sort any array of length <em>n</em> (assuming comparisons
 *  take constant time). It makes between
 *  ~ &frac12; <em>n</em> log<sub>2</sub> <em>n</em> and
 *  ~ 1 <em>n</em> log<sub>2</sub> <em>n</em> compares.
 *  <p>
 *  This sorting algorithm is stable.
 *  It uses &Theta;(<em>n</em>) extra memory (not including the input array).
 *  <p>
 *  For additional documentation, see
 *  <a href="https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/21elementary">Section 2.1</a> of
 *  <i>Algorithms, 4th Edition</i> by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *
 *  @author Robert Sedgewick
 *  @author Kevin Wayne
 */
public class MergeBU {

    // This class should not be instantiated.
    private MergeBU() { }

    // stably merge a[lo..mid] with a[mid+1..hi] using aux[lo..hi]
    private static void merge(Comparable[] a, Comparable[] aux, int lo, int mid, int hi) {

        // copy to aux[]
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            aux[k] = a[k]; 
        }

        // merge back to a[]
        int i = lo, j = mid+1;
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            if      (i > mid)              a[k] = aux[j++];  // this copying is unneccessary
            else if (j > hi)               a[k] = aux[i++];
            else if (less(aux[j], aux[i])) a[k] = aux[j++];
            else                           a[k] = aux[i++];
        }

    }

    /**
     * Rearranges the array in ascending order, using the natural order.
     * @param a the array to be sorted
     */
    public static void sort(Comparable[] a) {
        int n = a.length;
        Comparable[] aux = new Comparable[n];
        for (int len = 1; len < n; len *= 2) {
            for (int lo = 0; lo < n-len; lo += len+len) {
                int mid  = lo+len-1;
                int hi = Math.min(lo+len+len-1, n-1);
                merge(a, aux, lo, mid, hi);
            }
        }
        assert isSorted(a);
    }

  /***********************************************************************
    *  Helper sorting functions.
    ***************************************************************************/
    
    // is v < w ?
    private static boolean less(Comparable v, Comparable w) {
        return v.compareTo(w) < 0;
    }


   /***************************************************************************
    *  Check if array is sorted - useful for debugging.
    ***************************************************************************/
    private static boolean isSorted(Comparable[] a) {
        for (int i = 1; i < a.length; i++)
            if (less(a[i], a[i-1])) return false;
        return true;
    }

    // print array to standard output
    private static void show(Comparable[] a) {
        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
            StdOut.println(a[i]);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Reads in a sequence of strings from standard input; bottom-up
     * mergesorts them; and prints them to standard output in ascending order. 
     *
     * @param args the command-line arguments
     */
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        String[] a = StdIn.readAllStrings();
        MergeBU.sort(a);
        show(a);
    }
}

/******************************************************************************
 *  Copyright 2002-2020, Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *
 *  This file is part of algs4.jar, which accompanies the textbook
 *
 *      Algorithms, 4th edition by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne,
 *      Addison-Wesley Professional, 2011, ISBN 0-321-57351-X.
 *      http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu
 *
 *
 *  algs4.jar is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
 *  it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
 *  the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
 *  (at your option) any later version.
 *
 *  algs4.jar is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
 *  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
 *  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
 *  GNU General Public License for more details.
 *
 *  You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
 *  along with algs4.jar.  If not, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses.
 ******************************************************************************/

优化版的归并排序（当元素个数小于8个的时候，采用插入排序）

/******************************************************************************
 *  Compilation:  javac MergeX.java
 *  Execution:    java MergeX < input.txt
 *  Dependencies: StdOut.java StdIn.java
 *  Data files:   https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort/tiny.txt
 *                https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort/words3.txt
 *   
 *  Sorts a sequence of strings from standard input using an
 *  optimized version of mergesort.
 *   
 *  % more tiny.txt
 *  S O R T E X A M P L E
 *
 *  % java MergeX < tiny.txt
 *  A E E L M O P R S T X                 [ one string per line ]
 *    
 *  % more words3.txt
 *  bed bug dad yes zoo ... all bad yet
 *  
 *  % java MergeX < words3.txt
 *  all bad bed bug dad ... yes yet zoo    [ one string per line ]
 *
 ******************************************************************************/

package edu.princeton.cs.algs4;

import java.util.Comparator;

/**
 *  The {@code MergeX} class provides static methods for sorting an
 *  array using an optimized version of mergesort.
 *  <p>
 *  In the worst case, this implementation takes
 *  &Theta;(<em>n</em> log <em>n</em>) time to sort an array of
 *  length <em>n</em> (assuming comparisons take constant time).
 *  <p>
 *  This sorting algorithm is stable.
 *  It uses &Theta;(<em>n</em>) extra memory (not including the input array).
 *  <p>
 *  For additional documentation, see
 *  <a href="https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/22mergesort">Section 2.2</a> of
 *  <i>Algorithms, 4th Edition</i> by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *
 *  @author Robert Sedgewick
 *  @author Kevin Wayne
 */
public class MergeX {
    private static final int CUTOFF = 7;  // cutoff to insertion sort

    // This class should not be instantiated.
    private MergeX() { }

    private static void merge(Comparable[] src, Comparable[] dst, int lo, int mid, int hi) {

        // precondition: src[lo .. mid] and src[mid+1 .. hi] are sorted subarrays
        assert isSorted(src, lo, mid);
        assert isSorted(src, mid+1, hi);

        int i = lo, j = mid+1;
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            if      (i > mid)              dst[k] = src[j++];
            else if (j > hi)               dst[k] = src[i++];
            else if (less(src[j], src[i])) dst[k] = src[j++];   // to ensure stability
            else                           dst[k] = src[i++];
        }

        // postcondition: dst[lo .. hi] is sorted subarray
        assert isSorted(dst, lo, hi);
    }

    private static void sort(Comparable[] src, Comparable[] dst, int lo, int hi) {
        // if (hi <= lo) return;
        if (hi <= lo + CUTOFF) { 
            insertionSort(dst, lo, hi);
            return;
        }
        int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
        sort(dst, src, lo, mid);
        sort(dst, src, mid+1, hi);

        // if (!less(src[mid+1], src[mid])) {
        //    for (int i = lo; i <= hi; i++) dst[i] = src[i];
        //    return;
        // }

        // using System.arraycopy() is a bit faster than the above loop
        if (!less(src[mid+1], src[mid])) {
            System.arraycopy(src, lo, dst, lo, hi - lo + 1);
            return;
        }

        merge(src, dst, lo, mid, hi);
    }

    /**
     * Rearranges the array in ascending order, using the natural order.
     * @param a the array to be sorted
     */
    public static void sort(Comparable[] a) {
        Comparable[] aux = a.clone();
        sort(aux, a, 0, a.length-1);  
        assert isSorted(a);
    }

    // sort from a[lo] to a[hi] using insertion sort
    private static void insertionSort(Comparable[] a, int lo, int hi) {
        for (int i = lo; i <= hi; i++)
            for (int j = i; j > lo && less(a[j], a[j-1]); j--)
                exch(a, j, j-1);
    }


    /*******************************************************************
     *  Utility methods.
     *******************************************************************/

    // exchange a[i] and a[j]
    private static void exch(Object[] a, int i, int j) {
        Object swap = a[i];
        a[i] = a[j];
        a[j] = swap;
    }

    // is a[i] < a[j]?
    private static boolean less(Comparable a, Comparable b) {
        return a.compareTo(b) < 0;
    }

    // is a[i] < a[j]?
    private static boolean less(Object a, Object b, Comparator comparator) {
        return comparator.compare(a, b) < 0;
    }


    /*******************************************************************
     *  Version that takes Comparator as argument.
     *******************************************************************/

    /**
     * Rearranges the array in ascending order, using the provided order.
     *
     * @param a the array to be sorted
     * @param comparator the comparator that defines the total order
     */
    public static void sort(Object[] a, Comparator comparator) {
        Object[] aux = a.clone();
        sort(aux, a, 0, a.length-1, comparator);
        assert isSorted(a, comparator);
    }

    private static void merge(Object[] src, Object[] dst, int lo, int mid, int hi, Comparator comparator) {

        // precondition: src[lo .. mid] and src[mid+1 .. hi] are sorted subarrays
        assert isSorted(src, lo, mid, comparator);
        assert isSorted(src, mid+1, hi, comparator);

        int i = lo, j = mid+1;
        for (int k = lo; k <= hi; k++) {
            if      (i > mid)                          dst[k] = src[j++];
            else if (j > hi)                           dst[k] = src[i++];
            else if (less(src[j], src[i], comparator)) dst[k] = src[j++];
            else                                       dst[k] = src[i++];
        }

        // postcondition: dst[lo .. hi] is sorted subarray
        assert isSorted(dst, lo, hi, comparator);
    }


    private static void sort(Object[] src, Object[] dst, int lo, int hi, Comparator comparator) {
        // if (hi <= lo) return;
        if (hi <= lo + CUTOFF) { 
            insertionSort(dst, lo, hi, comparator);
            return;
        }
        int mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
        sort(dst, src, lo, mid, comparator);
        sort(dst, src, mid+1, hi, comparator);

        // using System.arraycopy() is a bit faster than the above loop
        if (!less(src[mid+1], src[mid], comparator)) {
            System.arraycopy(src, lo, dst, lo, hi - lo + 1);
            return;
        }

        merge(src, dst, lo, mid, hi, comparator);
    }

    // sort from a[lo] to a[hi] using insertion sort
    private static void insertionSort(Object[] a, int lo, int hi, Comparator comparator) {
        for (int i = lo; i <= hi; i++)
            for (int j = i; j > lo && less(a[j], a[j-1], comparator); j--)
                exch(a, j, j-1);
    }


   /***************************************************************************
    *  Check if array is sorted - useful for debugging.
    ***************************************************************************/
    private static boolean isSorted(Comparable[] a) {
        return isSorted(a, 0, a.length - 1);
    }

    private static boolean isSorted(Comparable[] a, int lo, int hi) {
        for (int i = lo + 1; i <= hi; i++)
            if (less(a[i], a[i-1])) return false;
        return true;
    }

    private static boolean isSorted(Object[] a, Comparator comparator) {
        return isSorted(a, 0, a.length - 1, comparator);
    }

    private static boolean isSorted(Object[] a, int lo, int hi, Comparator comparator) {
        for (int i = lo + 1; i <= hi; i++)
            if (less(a[i], a[i-1], comparator)) return false;
        return true;
    }

    // print array to standard output
    private static void show(Object[] a) {
        for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
            StdOut.println(a[i]);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Reads in a sequence of strings from standard input; mergesorts them
     * (using an optimized version of mergesort); 
     * and prints them to standard output in ascending order. 
     *
     * @param args the command-line arguments
     */
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        String[] a = StdIn.readAllStrings();
        MergeX.sort(a);
        show(a);
    }
}

/******************************************************************************
 *  Copyright 2002-2020, Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne.
 *
 *  This file is part of algs4.jar, which accompanies the textbook
 *
 *      Algorithms, 4th edition by Robert Sedgewick and Kevin Wayne,
 *      Addison-Wesley Professional, 2011, ISBN 0-321-57351-X.
 *      http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu
 *
 *
 *  algs4.jar is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
 *  it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
 *  the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
 *  (at your option) any later version.
 *
 *  algs4.jar is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
 *  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
 *  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
 *  GNU General Public License for more details.
 *
 *  You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
 *  along with algs4.jar.  If not, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses.
 ******************************************************************************/