ONE BRAIN OR TWO?
We now know that each half of the brain has its own memories and its own train of thought. The left half deals mainly in words and is associated with analysis and logical thinking. The right half deals mainly in sensory images and is associated with intuition and creative thinking. Despite the separateness of the hemispheres, however, the brain's functions are profoundly integrated.
Some researchers regard the brain as synonymous with the mind. Western philosophy, however, has traditionally held that there is an important difference. According to this view, the brain is a physical reality whereas the mind is metaphysical – that is, nonmaterial.
CRITICAL THINKING DEFINED
The word critical often carries negative connotation, implying excessive faultfinding. That connotation does not apply to the term critical thinking, which refers to the process of evaluating ideas. When we think critically, we judge the accuracy of statements and the soundness of the reasoning that leads to conclusions. Critical thinking helps us interpret complex ideas, appraise the evidence offered in support of arguments, and distinguish between reasonableness and unreasonableness.
One of the keys to proficiency in critical thinking is skill in asking relevant questions. Where the uncritical accept their first thoughts and others' statements at face value, critical thinkers challenge all ideas in the following manner:
Thought:
A college education isn't worth what you pay for it. Some people never reach a salary level appreciably higher than the level they would have reached without the degree.
Question:
Is money the only measure of the worth of an education? What about increased understanding of self and life and increased ability to cope with challenges?
Critical thinkers also use questions philosophically; in other words, to wonder about issues, probe them more deeply than is customary, and look for new insights. We hear it frequently today in statements like "Our country has lost its traditional values" and "There would be less crime, especially violent crime, if parents and teachers emphasized moral values."
Here are some of the questions a critical thinker would ask:
What is the relationship between values and beliefs? Between values and convictions?
Are all values valuable?
How aware is the average person of his or her values? Is it possible that many people deceive themselves about their real values?
Where do one's values originate? Within the individual or outside? In thought or in feeling?
Does education change a person's values? If so, is this change always for the better?
Should parents and teachers attempt to shape children's values?
CHARACTERISTICS OF CRITICAL THINKERS
There are a number of misconceptions about critical thinking. One is that being able to support beliefs with reasons makes one a critical thinker. Virtually everyone has reasons, however pathetic they may be. The test of critical thinking is whether the reasons are good and sufficient.
Another misconception is that critical thinkers never imitate others in thought or action. If that were the case, then every pigheaded person would be a critical thinker. Critical thinking means making wise decisions, regardless of how common those decisions are.
A third misconception is that critical thinking is synonymous with having a lot of right answers in one's head. There's nothing wrong with having right answers, of course. But critical thinking is the process of finding answers when they are not so readily available.
Yet another misconception is that critical thinking cannot be learned, that one either "has it" or does not. One the contrary, critical thinking is a matter of habit.
We have already noted one characteristic of critical thinkers – skill in asking appropriate questions. Another is control of their mental activities. American philosopher John Dewey once observed that more of our time than most of us care to admit is spent "trifling with mental pictures, random recollections, pleasant but unfounded hopes, flitting, half-developed impressions." Good thinkers are no exception. However, they have learned better than poor thinkers how to stop that casual, semiconscious drift of images when they wish and how to fix their minds on one specific matter, examine it carefully, and form a judgment about it.
Here are some additional characteristics of critical thinkers, as contrasted with those of uncritical thinkers:
Critical Thinkers:Are honest with themselves, acknowledging what they don't know, recognizing their limitations, and being watchful of their own errors.
Uncritical Thinkers: Pretend they know more than they do, ignore their limitations, and assume their views are error-free.
Critical Thinkers:Regard problems and controversial issues as exciting challenges.
Uncritical Thinkers: Regard problems and controversial issues as nuisances or threats to their ego.
Critical Thinkers:Strive for understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with complexity and ready to invest time to overcome confusion.
Uncritical Thinkers: Are impatient with complexity and thus would rather remain confused than make the effort to understand.
Critical Thinkers:Set aside personal preferences and base judgments on evidence, deferring judgment whenever evidence is insufficient. They revise judgments when new evidence reveal error.
Uncritical Thinkers: Base judgments on first impressions and gut reactions. They are unconcerned about the amount or quality of evidence and cling to earlier views steadfastly.
Critical Thinkers: Are interested in other people's ideas, so are willing to read and listen attentively, even when they tend to disagree with the other person.
Uncritical Thinkers: Are preoccupied with self and their own opinions, and so are unwilling to pay attention to other's views. At the first sign of disagreement they tend to think, "How can I refute this?"
Critical Thinkers: Recognize that extreme views (whether conservative or liberal) are seldom correct, so they avoid them, practice fair-mindedness, and seek a balanced view.
Uncritical Thinkers: Ignore the need for balance and give preference to views that support their established views.
Critical Thinkers: Practice restraint, controlling their feelings rather than being controlled by them, and thinking before acting.
Uncritical Thinkers: Tend to follow their feelings and act impulsively.
Effective thinkers exert control over their mental life, direct their thoughts rather than being directed by them, and withhold their endorsement of any idea – even their own – until they have tested and proved it. John Dewey considered this mental discipline to be identical with freedom. That is, he argued that people who do not have it are not free persons but slaves. Here his words:
If a man's actions are not guided by thoughtful conclusions, then they are guided by inconsiderate impulse, unbalanced appetite, caprice, or the circumstances of the moment. To cultivate unhindered, unreflective external activity is to foster enslavement, for it leaves the person at the mercy of appetite, sense, and circumstance.
THE ROLE OF INTUITION
Intuition is instinctive knowing or perception without reference to the rational process. Of all aspects of thinking, it is perhaps the most dramatic and therefore the most fascinating. History records many cases of important discoveries just "occurring" to people. They may not even be consciously considering the matter. Then all of a sudden the answer comes to them, seemingly out of nowhere.
Intuition is not restricted to famous men and women. Most of us have had similar though less momentous experiences with it. And two facts are common to all these experiences, great and small alike. Though intuition is always a welcome companion to critical thinking, it is never a substitute for it.
CRITICAL THINKING AND WRITING
Writing may be used for either of two broad purposes – to discover ideas or to communicate ideas. Most of the writing you have done in school is undoubtedly the latter kind. But the former can be very helpful, not only in sorting out ideas you've already produced, but in stimulating the flow of ideas. For some reason, the very act of writing down one idea has a way of producing additional ideas.
APPLICATIONS
1. Rate yourself on each of the seven characteristics of good thinkers that are listed above. Which are you strongest in? Which weakest? If you behavior varies form situation to situation, try to determine what kinds of issues or circumstances bring out your best and worst mental qualities.
2. State and explain your position on each of the following controversial issues, applying what you leaned in this chapter.
A. The rape laws in some states require that the force used in the act be sufficient to produce a fear in the victim of serious physical injury or death. Some laws also require that the victim earnestly resist the assault. Where those conditions are not present, a rapist will not be prosecuted.
B. In what was believed to be the first national attempt to bring economic pressure to make a television network tone down the sex and violence in its programming, the Coalition for Better Television urged the public to boycott products made by RCA because the network owned by that company, NBC, had excluded Christian characters, Christian values, and Christian culture from their programming. NBC denounced the move as an obvious attempt at intimidation.
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