马克波罗和丝绸之路

监狱里的故事

1298年，一个叫马可波罗的人坐在意大利热那亚的牢房里。他想起了他有过的不平凡生活。在他年轻的时候，马可从他的家乡意大利旅行到了遥远的地方。20多年来，他经历了很多伟大的冒险。但是在他回来后，他成了热那亚和威尼斯城市战争的一个人质。

有一个狱友，叫做鲁斯提切诺是一位作家，和马可成为了朋友。

“我听说你去过天朝，看到过很多神奇的东西，”他说。

天朝是意大利和其他欧洲人对中国的称谓。

中国是一个神奇的地方，很多人知道的并不多。

“对，”马可说，“我去过天朝。你想听听么？”

鲁斯点点头。"我确实很想听。"

马可往后坐了下来告诉鲁斯关于他的那些很棒的旅行。几个月来，他讲了一个又一个故事，而作家则拿着笔把每个都写了下来。

“这将是一本非常精彩的书，”他说。

马克波罗版画

神秘的天朝和丝绸之路

马可波罗不是第一个从欧洲去天朝的人。在他之前有些许人去过。不管怎么样，这些旅行者并没有出版关于他们旅行的畅销书。所以，很多人只知道很少一部分关于亚洲国家的事情。但是，数百年来，来自遥远国家的贸易者带着中国的商品到欧洲和世界的其他地方。

欧洲的人们渴望得到来自中国的商品，比如精美的陶器，玉雕和丝绸。丝绸是由蚕宝宝的蛹制作而成的美丽的，闪闪发光的布料。直到公元500年，中国以外没人知道怎么制作丝绸。古代罗马人（公元100年）非常珍视丝绸，他们愿意用相同重量的黄金来支付。

与中国的大部分交易都是通过亚洲大陆的东西路线进行的。这条路线实际上有多条支线延长至大约4000英里。它穿过沙漠和山脉。几个世纪以来，一直是骆驼商队的高速公路，路上是排成长队的骆驼满载着商品。

骆驼商队载着许多值钱的东西。来之欧洲和西方的其他国家的商人，他们把黄金，象牙，羊毛地毯，宝石和其他商品运往中国。作为回报，他们带来中国商品给欧洲人和西方的其他国家。尽管丝绸是那么多中国商品中的一种，但它的需求还是最大的。鉴于此，这条商队路线成就为了丝绸之路。

蒙古人征服了中国

丝绸之路是在公元前200年建立的。那个时候，中国是由一个叫汉朝的王朝统治着。在后来的几个世纪里，丝绸之路的用途多种多样。有的时候旅途会变得非常危险，因为沿途有敌对阵营和强盗。当危险出现时，很少有商队会沿着这条路冒险。

在公元907年，这条路线的使用率出现严重下滑，在12世纪初，路上的危险成倍增加。那是一个叫蒙古的民族从他们的国家蒙古向亚洲大草原扩张的时候。蒙古人征服了整个亚洲。他们是凶猛的战士，对敌人毫不留情。蒙古军队有时候摧毁整个城市,然后屠杀所有的人。

蒙古的领导者是一位叫铁木真的人。1206年，他的人们称他为成吉思汗，意思是“万能的统治者”。这就是后来他被人民记住的名字。成吉思汗和他后来的统治者们征服了很大一块区域，就是我们知道的蒙古帝国。

成吉思汗

成吉思汗想要把中国加入他的帝国，但是他在1227年去世了，当时还来不及这么做。他的孙子，忽必烈，在1264年满足了她的愿望，征服了中国的北方。他之后征服了中国的剩下部分，并在1279年建立了元朝。曾经，蒙古人牢牢控制着亚洲，久违的和平来到。在忽必烈完成征服中国之前，丝绸之路再次成为骆驼商队的安全路线。

忽必烈

马可波罗和他的家族

就在忽必烈统治中国北方的前十年，马可波罗出生在1254年的威尼斯。意大利的北部城市威尼斯是通过与远方土地的贸易而变得富有。马可的父亲，尼克,还有他的舅舅，马飞奥，都是商人。

当马可还是个婴儿的时候，家里两位年长的波罗已经开始了贸易之旅。他的母亲独自抚养马可。她可能注意到了，马可接受了商人家庭的教育。这个男孩子学习了阅读，写作和数学，并学会了外国货币。他也收到了一些关于如何操作货船的教程。

当马可13岁的时候，他的母亲死了。他的叔叔和阿姨照顾他。家里的每一个人都想知道，如果有可能，马可的父亲和叔叔什么时候回来。

尼克和马飞奥终于在1269年回到了威尼斯。他们已经大约离开了14年。他们解释说，这次旅程出乎意料的把他们带到了中国。那里，他们遇到了忽必烈。伟大的蒙古统治者对他们很好，并要求他们回来。

马上，尼克和马飞奥开始着手准备返回中国的旅行。这次，他们决定带着马可一起去。

在离开之前，波罗兄弟从新教皇格里高利十世那里获得了给忽必烈的信和礼物。在他们第一次到中国期间，波罗兄弟就和忽必烈讲述了基督教。他让兄弟俩带来传教士和消息。

皇格里高利十世

长途跋涉来到中国

1271年年末，当马可17岁时，他离开威尼斯跟着他的父亲和叔叔踏上了前往中国的第二趟旅程。他们由教皇任命的两位传教士陪同。旅行者们计划从波斯（现在的伊朗）的一个港口城市霍尔木兹启航到中国。由于霍尔木兹所有的船都很差劲，他们改走陆路前往中国。

他们获得了骆驼，然后向东出发。他们大部分的路程，都是沿着丝绸之路。旅行非常艰难，他们穿过沙漠，跨过高山。他们有时候骑骆驼，有时候骑马。旅途开始的时候，传教士拒绝前进，然后转身回去了。马可和两位年长的波罗在没有他们的情况下继续前进。

旅行中最困难的一部分是穿过戈壁大沙漠。这是一个在亚洲西部的巨大的，岩石为主的沙漠。那里的气温，夏季飙升到45度，冬天降低到零下四十度。当戈壁沙漠在他们身后时，马可和他的同伴们松了口气。那个时候，他们已经来到了中国。

三年半的旅行后，马可波罗们来到了忽必烈的王朝。蒙古的统治者热烈的迎接他们。马可波罗们休息好后，和忽必烈一起前往首都坎巴卢克，也叫塔图（现在的北京）。在那里，马可对忽必烈宫殿的大小和美丽感到惊讶。他称之为有史以来最伟大的宫殿。

戈壁滩和骆驼商队

马可波罗在中国的经历

忽必烈可汗很快给了波罗他们有权利的职位，允许他们得到财富。忽必烈可汗不喜欢在他的政府里使用汉人。他和其他蒙古人歧视汉人。所有最好的政府部门岗位都是蒙古人和外国人。马可成为了一个名为枢密院的重要组织一员。三年来，他一直是扬州的高级税务官员。

当马可在当地人民中走动时，他非常仔细的观察他们。他发现汉人痛恨蒙古统治者。他说人民觉得“他们不过是奴隶。”但是忽必烈和其他蒙古人不关心人民的极大不幸。他们觉得他们的权利很安全。

马可一直对中国及其文化感动惊讶。当时的中国比欧洲更先进和富有。

马可特别评论了几件事情。其中一件是邮政系统采用了送信员和骑手。看到中国人使用纸币，他非常惊讶。那时候，硬币是欧洲唯一使用的货币形式。给毫无价值的纸与白银或者黄金相同的价值显示了政府的权利。中国政府只是宣布发行的纸币有价值。几乎今天所有的纸币都是这样。

马可还惊讶的看到人们使用“像木头一样燃烧的石头”来加热。这些“石头”是煤炭。煤炭在欧洲非常平常，但是人们还没有发现它的用途。

回归之旅

在中国的17年后，波罗们想要回家。他们获得了黄金，珠宝和其他一些财富。忽必烈也到了70岁了，波罗们担心他会死去。如果事情一旦发生，下一任统治者可能不会让他们带着他们的财宝离开。

忽必烈喜欢波罗们，不想他们离开。最终，忽必烈提出如果他们愿意帮他的忙，就同意他们离开。他让他们陪一个蒙古公主去波斯，她将和那里的蒙古统治者结婚。波罗们同意了，1292年，他们和公主启航去波斯。

把公主带到波斯后，波罗们继续他们的回家之旅。他们走了陆路和水路。最终，在1295年，他们到达了威尼斯。他们已经离开了24年了。

战争和监禁

马可波罗到家的时候情况不太好。威尼斯正在和竞争对手意大利的热那亚竞争地中海的控制权。两座城市之间爆发了战争。尽管他现在40出头，马可还是应征入伍了威尼斯海军。他被安排去指挥战舰---一艘由许多人划桨的船。

1298年，热那亚打败了威尼斯，带走了7000名囚犯，包括马可。他被关进了热那亚的监狱。在这里他遇到了作家鲁斯,我们在故事的开头提到过他。

马可和其他威尼斯人在热那亚的监狱里待了一年。他们被释放的时候，作家鲁斯已经写下了马可关于中国的故事。他将会让马可出名。

12世纪末威尼斯的微型画

100万个故事还是100万个谎言？

马可波罗在中国的记录首次公开是在1298年，当时马可还在监狱里。因为那时候印刷术在欧洲还没有被发明。书本的复印全部靠手写。这本书以多种语言和书名发行，包括今天所使用的标题《马可波罗游记》。

马可的回忆录引起了轰动。他在整个欧洲家喻户晓。人们叫他II Milione, 一个意大利名字，大致意思是有一百万个故事的人，或者有人说有一百万个谎言的人。大部分读了马可这本书的人认为这是一本故事集。他们不相信中国比欧洲先进那么多。

时至今日，还有很多质疑者。尽管大部分历史学家认为那是马可波罗旅行的真实记录，其他人不同意。他们说，他可能只去过波斯。那里，可以从波斯的蒙古统治者那里了解中国的这些奇迹。

为什么有些人还是认为马可波罗说谎？因为在他书中没有提到显而易见的东西，比如喝茶，中国书法，还有长城。怀疑者还提出，从12世纪中国的历史记录来看，没有提到过马可。

马可发誓他说的是真的。在1324年，当他临终时，70岁的马可接见了一位神父。神父劝他承认自己的书全是谎言，以此来拯救灵魂。但是马可拒绝了，并说，"我所看到的还没有说一半。"

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A Tale Told in Prison

In the year 1298, a man named Marco Polo sat in a prison cell in Genoa, Italy. He thought about the remarkable life he had led. During his youth, Marco had traveled from his native Italy to distant lands. For more than 20 years, he had experienced many great adventures. But after his return, he was a hostage in a war between two Italian cities—Genoa, and his home city, Venice

A fellow prisoner, a writer named Rustichello, formed a friendship with Marco. "I've heard that you have been to Cathay and have seen many amazing things," he said. Cathay was what people in Italy and other parts of Europe called China. China was a mysterious land most people knew very little about.

"Yes," said Marco, "I have been to Cathay. Would you like to hear about it?"

Rustichello nodded. "I would indeed."

Marco then sat back and started to tell Rustichello about his fantastic journey. For months, he told one story after another while the writer took pen in hand to write downevery word. "This will make a wonderful book," he said.

Mysterious Cathay and the Silk Road

Marco Polo was not the first person from Europe to see Catheay. There had been a few before him. However, those travelers did not publish popular books about their journeys. Thus, most people knew very little about the Asian country. Yet traders from distant lands had been bringing Chinese goods to Europe and other parts of the world for hundreds of years.

People in Europe had long desired things from China, such as beauiful pottery, carved jade, and silk. Silk is a beautiful, shimmering cloth made from the cocoons of silkworms. Until the AD 500s, no one outside of China knew how to make silk. The ancient Romans (around AD 100) prized silk so highly that they were willing to pay for it with an equal weight of gold.

Much of the trade with China was conducted by way of a long east—west route across the continent of Asia. This route—actually several interconnecting routes—stretched about 4,000 miles (6,400 km). It passed through deserts and across mountain ranges. For centuries, it was a highway for camel caravans—long lines of camels loaded with goods.

The caravans carried many valuable things. From Europe and other countries in the West, they transported gold, ivory, wool rugs, precious stones, and other wares to China. In return, they carried Chinese goods to people in Europe and other parts of the West. Although silk was just one of many items brought back from China, it was probably the most desired. For that reason, the caravan route became known as the Silk Road.

The Mongols Conquer China

The Silk Road was established in about 200 sc. At that time, China was being governed by a dynasty—a line of rulers from the same family or group—called the Han (HAHN). During later centuries, use of the Silk Road varied. Sometimes the journey became dangerous because of warring groups and bandits along the road. When dangers arose, few caravans dared to venture along the route.

In ad 907, the road went into a serious decline, and in the early 1200s, dangers on the road multiplied. That is when a people called the Mongols spread out from their homeland of Mongolia on the Asian steppe (grasslands). The Mongols launched conquests throughout Asia. They were ferocious warriors who showed their enemies little mercy. Mongol armies sometimes destroyed entire cities and slaughtered everyone in them.

The Mongols were led by a man named Timuyjin. In 1206, his people proclaimed him Genghis Khan (JENG—gihs KAHN), a name that meant "Universal Ruler." This is the name by which he has come to be remembered. Genghis Khan and later Mongol rulers conquered a huge area, which became known as the Mongol Empire.

Genghis Khan wanted to add China to his empire, but he died in 1227 before he was able Genghis Khan wanted to add China to his empire, but he died in 1227 before he was able to do so. His grandson, Kublai Khan, fulfilled his desire and conquered northern China in 1264. He then conquered the rest of China, and in 1279 he established the Yuan (yoo—WAHN) dynasty. Once the Mongols were in firm control of Asia, peace returned. Even before Kublai Khan finished the conquest of China, the Silk Road had again become safe for camel caravans.

Marco Polo and His Family

Just ten years before Kublai Khan ruled northern China, Marco Polo was born in 1254 in Venice. The northern Italian city of Venice had grown rich by trading with faraway lands. Marco's father, Nicolo, and his uncle, Maffeo, were both merchants.

When Marco was just a baby, the two elder Polos departed on a trading journey. His mother was left alone to raise Marco. She probably saw to it that Marco received an education typical of the sons of merchant families. The boy most likely studied reading about foreign money. He also may have received some instruction on how to handle a cargo ship.

When Marco was 13 years old, his mother died. An aunt and uncle then cared for him. Everyone in the family must have wondered when, if ever, Marco's father and his uncle Maffeo would return.

Nicolo and Maffeo Polo finally got back to Venice in 1269. They had been gone about 14 years. They explained that their trip had unexpectedly taken them all the way to China. There, they met Kublai Khan. The great Mongol ruler had treated them very well and had asked that they return.

Almost at once, Nicolo and Maffeo started preparing for a return trip to China. This time, they decided, they would take Marco with them.

Before leaving, the Polo brothers obtained letters and gifts for Kublai Khan from the new pope, Gregory X. During their first trip to China, the Polo brothers had told Kublai khan about the Christian religion. The Mongol ruler became very interested in Christianity. He asked the brothers to bring him missionaries and information.

The Long Trek to China

In late 1271, when Marco was 17, he left Venice with his father and uncle on their second trip to china. They were accompanied by two missionaries appointed by Pope Gregory. The travelers planned to sail to China from a port city name Hormuz in the country of Persia—present-day Iran. Since all of the ship at Hormuz were very poorly made, they decided to make the long trip to China by land instead.

They obtained camels and set off toward the East. For much of their journey, they followed the Silk Road. The journey was very difficult, taking them across deserts and mountains. Sometimes they rode camels and sometimes horses. Early in the journey, the missionaries refused to go any farther and turned back. Marco and the two elder Polos pushed on without them.

One of the most difficult parts of the journey was traveling across the Gobi Desert. This is a huge, primarily rocky desert in western Asia, where temperatures soar above 45 degrees Celsius in summer and plummet to -40℃ in winter. Marco and his companions were relieved when the Gobi was behind them. By then, they were in China.

After traveling for three and a half years, the Polos reached the court of Kublai Khan. The Mongol ruler greeted them warmly. After the Polos had rested, they went with Kublai Khan to the capital, Cambaluc, also called Ta-tu (present-day Beijing). There, Marco was amazed by the size and beauty of Kublai Khan's palace. He called it "the greatest palace that ever was"

Marco Polo's Experiences in China

Kublai Khan soon gave the Polos positions of authority, which allowed them to get wealthy. Kublai Khan did not like using Chinese people in his government. He and other Mongols discriminated against the Chinese. All the best government positions were filled by Mongols or other foreigners. Marco became a member of an important government group called the Privy Council. And for three years, he was a high-ranking tax official in the city of Yangzhou.

As he moved among the people of China, Marco observed them carefully. He saw that the Chinese hated their Mongol rulers. He said the people felt "that they were no more than slaves." But Kublai Khan and the other Mongols didn't care about the great unhappiness of the people. They felt secure in their power.

Marco was constantly astonished by China and its culture. China at that time was more advanced and wealthy than the countries of Europe.

Marco commented on several things in particular. One was a postal system that used runners and horseback riders. He was even more impressed to see the Chinese use paper money, coins were the only form of money used in Europe. Giving worthless paper the value of silver or gold demonstrated government power. China's government simply declared that the paper money it issued had value. This is how almost all paper money works today.

Marco was also surprised to see people using "stones that burn like logs" to create heat. These "stones" were coal. Coal was common in Europe, but people hadn't discovered its use yet.

The Return Voyage

After 17 years in China, the Polos wanted to go home. They had acquired a fortune in gold, jewels, and other treasures. Kublai Khan was now in his mid-70s, and the Polos were afraid he might die soon. If that happened, the next ruler might not let them leave with their wealth.

Kublai Khan liked the Polos and did not want them go go. Finally, however, he gave them his consent to leave if they would perform a favor for him. He asked them to accompany a Mongol princess to Persia, where she was to marry the Mongol ruler of that land. The Polos agreed, and in 1292, they and the princess departed for Persia on ships.

After taking the princess to Persia, the Polos continued their homeward journey. They traveled by both land and sea. Finally, in 1295, they arrived in Venice. They had been gone for 24 years.

War and Captivity

Marco Polo got home at a bad time. Venice was competing with rival Italian city Genoa for control of the Mediterranean Sea. War broke out between the two cities. Although he was now in his early 40s, Marco enlisted in the Venetian navy. He was placed in command of a war galley—a ship powered by many human rowers.

Genoa defeated Venice in the war in 1298 and took about 7,000 prisoners, including Marco. He was thrown into a prison in Genoa. There he met the writer Rustichello, whom we met at the beginning of this story.

Marco and the other Venetians spent a year in the Genoese prison. By the time they were released, Rustichello had written down all of Marco's tales about China. He was about to make Marco Polo Famous.

A Million Stories or a Million Lies?

Marco Polo's account of his years in China first became available in 1298 wile Marco was still in prison. Because printing had not yet been invented in Europe, copies of the book were all written out by hand. The book was issued in several languages and under several titles, including The Travels of Marco Polo, which is the title used today.

Marco's memoir became a sensation. And he became well known throughout Europe. People called him ll Milione, an Italian name meaning, roughly, the man of a million stories, or, as some said, the man of a million lies. Most readers of Marco's book considered it nothing but a collection of tall tales. They refused to believe that China could be so much more advanced than Europe.

Even today, there are doubters. Although most historians think that Marco Polo's book is a true account of his travels, others disagree. They say he probably went no farther than Persia. There, he could have learned about the wonders of China from Persia's Mongol rulers.

Why do some people still think that Marco Polo lied? It is because he made no mention in his book of some obvious things, such as tea drinking, Chinese writing, and the Great Wall of China. The doubters also point out that Chinese records from the 1200s contain no mention of the Polos.

Marco Polo always swore that he was telling the truth. When he was on his deathbed in 1324, the 70-year-old Marco was visited by a priest. The priest urged him to save his soul by admitting that his book was all lies. But Marco refused, saying, "I have not told half of what I saw."