Intentionally changing the subject frustrates the purpose of discussion. To avoid this error, face difficult questions head-on. If you know the
answer, state it. If the issue is too complex to permit a certain answer,
state what you believe to be probable and explain your reasoning. If you
lack sufficient knowledge to speak of probabilities, say so. No reasonable
person will think less of you for candidly admitting ignorance.
Shifting the Burden of Proof
The error of shifting the burden of proof consists of demanding that others disprove our assertions. Let’s say Bill asserts, “The greatest single
cause of exploding health care costs in this country is unnecessary referral of patients for costly medical testing.” Barbara then asks Bill to explain why he believes that to be the case. He responds, “Can you cite any evidence to disprove it? If you can’t, then say so.” Bill is guilty of shifting the burden of proof. He made an assertion; he should be ready to support it if asked and not demand that others refute it. The rule is that whoever makes the assertion bears the burden of supporting it, and the more the assertion departs from what knowledgeable people believe, the greater the responsibility of the person making the assertion to support it.
故意改变话题妨碍讨论的目的。为了避免这个错误，要迎面面对困难的问题。如果你知道答案，说出来。如果这个问题太过复杂以至于不能允许一个确切答案，说出来你认为是可能的并且解释你的理由。如果你缺少充足知识谈论概率，那就说出来。没有公道的人会因为你坦率的承认无知而轻视你。
转移举证责任
转移举证责任的错误包括要求他人反驳我们的断言。让我们看看比尔的断言：“造成这个国家医疗费用暴涨的最大原因是不必要地将病人转介到昂贵的医疗检查中去。”然后芭芭拉要比尔解释为什么他相信情况即是如此。他回应道：“你能举出任何证据反对它？如果你不能，那就是这样。”比尔犯了转移举证责任的错误。他做了一次断言；他需要准备好在被问到时支持这个断言并且不需要别人辩驳它。规则是，无论谁做了这个断言都负有支持它的责任，并且这个断言月背离知识分子相信的，这人就越有支持这断言的责任。
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