【英语学习】这个系列的文章，共99篇，这是第26篇！
逻辑是个好东西。掌握它，我们就能准确理解信息间的关系。
结构是个好东西。掌握它，我们就能迅速识别句子、段落或文章布局，更好地理解主旨和细节。
“总分总”是一种结构；
“金字塔”是一种结构；
“比较”是一种结构；
“时间顺序”是一种结构；
“T字形利弊分析”是一种结构；
“矩阵分析”是一种结构；
“问题－解决”是一种结构；
“假设－实验”是一种结构；
“现象－原因”是一种结构；
......
假如我们脑海中本来就储有以上种种逻辑结构，那么，我们读或听英文时，只需要匹配这些逻辑结构就可以迅速准确地理解；我们在写和说英文时，只需要调用这些逻辑结构，就能够准确有效传递信息。
上篇从实操层面讨论“定义”的习得，及其在写作中的运用。
但，有学生说维基百科需要“翻墙”，查询起来不太方便。于是，我做了一些常考名词定义的整理。
Infrastructure 基础设施
定义：Infrastructure is the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or other area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function.
组成：Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical improvements such as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications.
种类：There are two general types of ways to view infrastructure, hard or soft. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of a modern industry. This includes roads, bridges, railways, etc. Soft infrastructurerefers to all the institutions that maintain the economic, health, social, and cultural standards of a country. This includes educational programs, official statistics, parks and recreational facilities, law enforcement agencies, and emergency services.
Healthcare 医保
定义：Healthcare is the maintenance or improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Healthcare is delivered by health professionals in allied health fields. Physicians and physician associates are a part of these health professionals.
An efficient healthcare system can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy, development and industrialization. Healthcare is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental healthand well-being of people around the world. An example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate healthcare interventions.
Many countries, especially in the west, are dealing with aging populations, so one of the priorities of the healthcare system is to help seniors live full, independent lives in the comfort of their own homes. There is an entire section of healthcare geared to providing seniors with help in day-to-day activities at home, such as transportation to and from doctor's appointments along with many other activities that are essential for their health and well-being.
With obesity in children rapidly becoming a major concern, health services often set up programs in schools aimed at educating children about nutritional eating habits, making physical education a requirement and teaching young adolescents to have positive self-image.
Media 媒体
Media (communication) are tools used to store and deliver information or data.
Advertising media
定义：Advertising is a marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, non-personal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea.
特征：Sponsors of advertising are typically businesses wishing to promote their products or services. Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser pays for and has control over the message. It differs from personal selling in that the message is non-personal, i.e., not directed to a particular individual. Advertising is communicated through various mass media, including traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor advertising or direct mail, and new media such as search results, blogs, social media, websites or text messages. The actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement, or "ad" or advert for short.
Broadcast media
定义：Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or video content to a dispersed audience via any electronic mass communications medium, but typically one using the electromagnetic spectrum, in a one-to-many model.
起源：Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. The term broadcasting evolved from its use as the agricultural method of sowing seeds in a field by casting them broadly about. It was later adopted for describing the widespread distribution of information by printed materials or by telegraph.
News media
The news media or news industry are forms of mass media that focus on delivering news to the general public or a target public. These include print media, broadcast news, and more recently the Internet.
Social media
Social media are interactive computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation or sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks. There are some common features:
1. Social media are interactive Web 2.0 Internet-based applications.
2. User-generated content, such as text posts or comments, digital photos or videos, and data generated through all online interactions, is the lifeblood of social media.
3. Users create service-specific profiles and identities for the website or app that are designed and maintained by the social media organization.
4. Social media facilitate the development of online social networks by connecting a user's profile with those of other individuals or groups.
Education 教育
定义：Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition ofknowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits.
方法：Educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling, discussion and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators; learners can also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.
Formal education is commonly divided formally into such stages as preschool or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship. Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces (e.g. classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more.
Government 政府
定义：A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state.
组成：Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. Each government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy. Typically the philosophy chosen is some balance between the principle of individual freedom and the idea of absolute state authority.
形式：Superficially, all governments have an official or ideal form. The United Statesis a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky. For example, Voltaire argued that "the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire".
分类：One method of classifying governments is through which people have the authority to rule. This can either be one person (an autocracy, such as monarchy), a select group of people (an aristocracy), or the people as a whole (a democracy, such as a republic).
Transport 交通运输
定义：Transport or transportation is the movement of humans, animals and goods from one location to another.
方式：Modes of transport include air, land (rail and road), water, cable, pipeline and space.
组成：The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations.
Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations, including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance.
Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, helicopters, watercraft, spacecraft and aircraft.
Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose, including financing, legalities, and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items.
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow and restrain urban sprawl.
Entertainment 娱乐
定义：Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention.
形式：Although people's attention is held by different things, because individuals have different preferences in entertainment, most forms are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, developed into sophisticated forms and over time became available to all citizens. The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products.
The experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose. This may be the case in the various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire for example. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears as entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth.
An important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment. The audience may have a passive role, as in the case of persons watching a play, opera, television show, or film; or the audience role may be active, as in the case of games, where the participant/audience roles may be routinely reversed. Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performance, as in the case of theatre or concerts; or unscripted and spontaneous, as in the case of children's games. Most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion for example with stage magic. Films and video games, for example, although they use newer media, continue to tell stories, present drama, and play music. Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days.
Technology 科技
定义：Technology is the sum of techniques, skills, methods, and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation.
举例：Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, or it can be embedded in machines to allow for operation without detailed knowledge of their workings.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it.
The distinction between science, engineering, and technology is not always clear.
Science is systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation.
Technologies are not usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as utility, usability, and safety.
Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often using results and techniques from science.
The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical result. Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering, although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines such as semiconductors, computers, and other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference.
在托福雅思的口语或写作考试中，很多同学不知道如何深入分析或充分拓展话题，多数情况下不是因为语言障碍，而是因为缺少论据素材积累，甚至缺少对诸如“政府”等词的准确理解。
以上内容均摘自维基百科，删除了不必要的背景介绍和举例。希望各位同学在写作备考过程中勤阅读积累，形成自己的素材库。
PDF版本下载链接:
https://pan.baidu.com/s/1jTH67AYSFMFoWnHXZjbpXQ
密码: vade
网友评论