狭义上的欧洲宗教改革起源于16世纪，可确认的源头是1517年，如雷贯耳的马丁·路德贴在德国维滕贝格诸圣堂的《九十五条论纲》。但实际上，真正谈起宗教改革运动，我们不能错过它源流的滥觞——约翰·威克里夫（1320~1384）。威克里夫创造了可能是真正最早的新教：罗拉德派，发生时间大约和天主教会大分裂同时（1378~1417，不是更早的东西教会大分裂）。威克里夫本人是首位将《圣经》翻译成英文的人（原先为拉丁文），是《圣经》世俗化的源头，也是打破教士垄断《圣经》现象的起点。罗拉德派很快被打为异端，威克里夫也因此被踢出了牛津大学，随后在1384年因中风去世。1415年，昭告天主教会大分裂的康斯坦茨会议对罗拉德派和另一新教胡斯派宣告谴责乃至绝罚，杨·胡斯被烧死，直接导致了胡斯战争的爆发，波西米亚水深火热，新教呼之欲出。
这就扯太远了，《十二条论纲》出现在1395年2月，罗拉德派的信众们向议会请愿，把它张贴在了威斯敏斯特大教堂的门上，这十二条论纲（实质上是结论，马丁·路德用的是theses，这些信徒用的是conclusions）体现了当时罗拉德派对天主教会的一些核心意见。其中运用了部分拉丁文，对此的翻译就只能依靠微软的机翻，还有一些内容感觉和现代英语有着较大的用法差异，而我对宗教文化的认知程度也远远不足，因此接下来的译文可能存在较多的谬误之处，还请不吝赐教：
一、教会的状况
「当英格兰的教会开始追随她的继母，溺爱着世俗时，罗马教会和众教堂在不同的地方遭到了灭顶之灾。信仰、希望和仁爱开始逃离我们的教堂。傲慢带着他那令人遗憾的死罪谱系，以遗产的名义向它发起挑战。这个结论是普遍的，并通过经验、习俗和行为方式得到了证明，你们以后将会听到。」
教会及其腐朽的影响已经在英国宫廷中蔓延得太远，在一定程度上需要对这场使英国陷入混乱的灾难负责。正是由于他们的敲诈勒索和偷窃行为，教会的合法地位才会崩塌。
二、圣职
「我们通常所称的圣职，即始于罗马、佯称拥有比天使更高的权力的神职人员，并不是基督设立给使徒的职位。这个结论是有根据的：罗马的圣职是由神迹、仪式和主教的祝福组成的，但是这其中并不包括德行。《圣经》中没有任何记载，因为连新约中的主教圣职都没有被记录。我们看不出基督会因为任何此类迹象而赐予任何恩赐，因为他和他神圣的恩赐是无论如何都不能与人的死罪相提并论的。这个结论的推论是，对于许多聪明人来说，看到主教们在发布命令时玩弄基督是非常不雅观的，因为他们给人戴上了皇冠，而不是白帽子。那是敌基督者的服装，被带入神圣的教会，涂上了怠惰的颜色。」
前教会的仪式几乎没有《圣经》中的依据，都是教会中的代理人为了维护其对信仰的垄断而发明的。只有参照《圣经》并加以解释，我们才能找到正确的做法。
三、神职人员独身（指禁止结婚的规定）
圣职所附有的禁欲法令，虽然最初是在对妇女的偏见下制定的，但在神圣的教会中诱发了鸡奸（注：杰哥行为）行为；但我们以《圣经》为借口来开脱，因为这可疑的法令让我们不能说出它的名字。理性和经验已经证明了这一结论。已经到了连神圣教会的人的美味佳肴都需要净化的地步了，甚至还要更糟。这些人的经验表明，他们不喜欢女人。这一论点的推论是，这种罪恶的始作俑者的私人宗教，是最值得废除的，而上帝会动用其强权，会对这种私罪公开报复。
四、变质论
除了少数人之外，圣餐面包（圣餐礼，即变质论）会诱使所有人狂热崇拜圣像，因为他们认为基督的身体永远不会离开天堂。在教士的言论中，基督的身体本质上应该被包在他们向人们展示的一小块面包里。但愿上帝能让他们相信教会圣师在他的《试论》中所说的：圣餐的面包通常是基督的身体。因此我们推测，按照上帝的律法，每一个真正的男人和女人都可以这样做面包圣餐，而不需要任何这样的奇迹。这个结论的进一步推论是，如果基督的身体被赋予了永恒的喜悦，那么托马斯·阿奎那修道士所做的基督圣体仪式就是不真实的，他创造了充满了虚伪的奇迹。这倒也不足为奇，因为托马斯修道士在同一时间与教皇一起，用母鸡的蛋创造了又一个奇迹。我们清楚地知道，每一个公开宣扬的谎言都会变成恶行，哪怕它曾经真实而无缺。
五、驱魔和圣器
在教堂里用酒、面包、蜡、水、盐、油、香、祭坛上的石头、法衣、徽章、十字架和朝圣杖进行驱魔和祝圣，是巫术而非神圣的神学的做法。这一结论由此得到证明：通过这种驱魔仪式，生物会被赋予比其同类更高的美德，而我们却看不到任何被如此迷惑的生物有任何变化——除非是被虚假的信仰所迷惑，而虚假的信仰正是魔鬼的主要伎俩。由此推论，如果在圣堂里撒圣水的书是真的，我们就会认为圣堂里用的圣水是治疗各种疾病的良药。但这和我们的切身经历恰恰相反。
六、世俗职务中的神职人员
一个人同时兼任国王和主教的身份，在教务上是教长和法官，在世务上是牧师和官员，这将使得每个领域都没有得到良好的治理。这个结论会公开告示，是因为属世和属灵本是神圣教会的两个部分。因此，执掌一个部分的人并不应该插手另一个部分，因为没有人可以同任两职。我们认为，雌雄同体或扶她对于这种双重身份的人来说是个好名字。由此推进我们的结论，我们作为上帝的检察官，为此要向议会提出要求，让所有教士，无论地位高低，都被完全免除世俗职务，只需负责治病而莫顾其他。
七、为死者祈祷
在我们的教堂中，为逝去者的灵魂做特别的祈祷，对某个人的偏爱要更多于其他人，这是施舍义举的虚伪本质，然而英国所有的救济院都建立在这个虚假的本质之上。这个结论有两个证据。其一，有功德、有价值的祈祷应该是源于高尚的慈善，而完美的慈善不接受任何人插足，包括你所爱的邻居等等。因此，我们认为，如果向祭司和救济院赠送世俗物品是特殊祈祷的主要原因，这无异于殉教。这种为被诅咒永远受苦的人做特别祷告的另一种技巧，是上帝非常不喜欢的，尽管这可能存疑，但在真正的基督徒眼中，救济院的创办人正轻而易举为他们的有害捐赠放开道路。由此推论，出于完全的仁慈而进行的有价值的祈祷，应该普遍地包括所有那些上帝希望拯救的人。而把他们的商品留给现在用于向乞丐、占有者和其他灵魂的祭司进行特别祈祷的人，这种人对所有在怠惰中维系的王国来说都是巨大的负担，因为有一本书证明过，国王听说一百个救济院就足够王国使用了，而其中管理世俗事物的部分应该尽可能增加。
八、朝圣
向盲人和聋哑的树石形象朝拜、祈祷和献祭，与对主的崇拜更为相近，而与教会施舍行径相距甚远。虽然这些被禁止的形象对冶荡的人们来说是一本错误的范例，但三位一体的形象是最为可憎的。因为他们是上帝的形象，比石头的形象更像，而上帝说的并不是「让我们按照我们的形象和样式制造木头，或者石头」，而是「让我们做一个人」等等。文士们称之为「拉特里亚」的崇高崇拜只憧憬神灵，而称之为「杜利亚」的低等崇拜则憧憬人、天使和低等生物（这两个名词指西欧人对圣三位一体崇拜的分类）。由此推论，在我们的教堂里，每年举行两次的十字架供奉仪式都是天主崇拜，因为如果十字架的木头、钉子、长矛和上帝的王冠都被如此神圣地崇拜，那么犹大的嘴唇，不管是谁得到的，都是一件了不起的遗物。但我们请求你，朝圣者，请你告诉我们，当你第一次把圣人的骸骨供奉在任何地方的时候，你是救济了极乐世界的圣人，还是救济了财力雄厚的救济院。天知道人们是如何被封为圣徒的，更直截了当地说，真正的基督徒都会推测，那个被人们称为圣托马斯的高尚的人的位置，并不是因为殉道而来。
九、忏悔
忏悔是救赎人类所必需的，而佯装的赦免权却增强了牧师们的自尊心，使他们有机会驱使那些我们不能说的人。老爷们和小姐们因为对忏悔的害怕，不敢说真话，而在忏悔的时候，却正是求爱和私下继续进行那些致命罪恶的最佳时机。他们说，他们是上帝的差役，可以认定一切罪过，可以随意污辱和清洗任何人。他们说，他们有天堂和地狱的钥匙，他们可以按照自己的意愿诅咒和祝福，约束和解除约束，以至于为了一英斗小麦或一年的十二便士，他们可以通过担保条款的特许状来出售天堂的幸福，并盖上公章。这个结论有目共睹，无需其他证明。与之相关的是：罗马教皇佯称自己是神圣教会的大司库，掌管着基督受难时的珠宝和天堂所有圣物的遗产，并以此赦免罪责。他是一个会因「慈善」而被放逐的司库，因为他可以按照自己的意愿解救痛苦中的囚犯，并使自己永远不会到那里去。在这里，每一个真正的基督徒都可以清楚地看到，在我们的教会中隐藏着许多潜藏的虚伪。（本条意指教士无权赦免或是判决）
十、战争、战斗和十字军东征
如若在没有天启的情况下，因战争或公义律法或出于属灵原因而造成的杀戮，明显违反了新约，而新约是恩典和充满怜悯的律法，基督在地上传道的例子便公开证明了这个结论。他最能教导人们去爱和怜悯他的敌人，而不是去杀死他们。其原因在于，为了更大众的一方，有人战斗，在第一击的仁慈被打破之后，那些出于善良而死的人就会走上地狱的大道。关于这一点，我们清楚地知道，没有任何教士能够根据圣经或理性找到对死罪而不是另一种罪的惩罚。但仁慈的律法，即新约，禁止一切错杀。在福音中，这句话是对古人说的。你不许杀人。因此的结论是：领主购买了赎罪券，这是对穷人进行神圣地抢劫，而对那些帮助他的主人者来说是一种惩罚和过失。正如我们所见，他们正聚集在遥远的地方，为了暂时的利益而屠杀基督徒。而那些为了获得杀戮之名而奔向异教的骑士，则得到了和平的主的怨恨。因为温柔和苦难，我们的信仰倍增，而战士和杀人犯却是耶稣基督所憎恨和威胁的。善用刀剑者，必死于刀剑之下。（出自《圣经》马太福音 26:52）
十一、女性节欲和堕胎的誓言
在我们的妇女教会中会许下的节欲誓言，其性质是反复无常而不完美的，是人类犯下最可怕的罪恶的原因。就像虽然在儿童受洗之前杀害他们、堕胎和用药物毁灭同类是完全有罪的，但知道自己与任何不合理的野兽或没有生命的生物发生关系，更值得在地狱中获得惩罚。下一步推论是，寡妇和那些已经拿起斗篷和戒指，享受美味的人，我们更希望她们能够结婚，只因我们不能原谅那些秘密的罪行。
十二、艺术与手工艺
我们的教会中使用了大量不必要的工艺，滋生了许多浪费、好奇和伪装的罪恶。经验和理性都证明了这一点，因为自然并不需要太多的工艺就能满足人类的需求。由此推论，既然圣保罗说，只要有衣有食，就当知足，那么我们认为，金匠、盔甲匠和所有对人类不必要的工艺，根据使徒的说法，应该为了美德的增加而不复存在。因为虽然这些工艺在旧法中更被需要，但新约已经摒弃了这些和许多其他工艺。
这是我们的使命，基督命令了我们去追求，这是目前许多原因中最可接受的。虽然这些事情在这里只是短短的几句话，但在另一本书中却有长篇大论，而且可能还有更多，都是用我们的语言，我们希望把它们传达给所有真正的基督徒。我们祈求上帝以他无尽的仁慈来改造我们的教会，使之重塑，而恢复最初的完美。阿门。
十二条到此结束。据说该文最早以古英语写成，随后被翻译成拉丁文上交给英格兰议会，随后又被翻译成英语，其中出现很多鄙人难以理解之处。其中大部分条目前都有一些修饰词，用以表达作者对于这几条结论的看法，对于我而言翻译过来会有很多难以理解之处，因此不加在译文中，仅呈现这十二条大致内容。
关于十二条论纲，我所能找到的版本源于哈佛大学的Harvard's Geoffrey Chaucer Website网站，用于哈佛大学核心课程、英语系和继续教育部的乔叟课程，“提供了广泛的中古英语词汇文本和与乔叟作品相关的类似物的翻译，以及早期和晚期作家的相关作品的选集、来自不同视角的批评文章、图形和中世纪生活的一般信息”。乔叟即杰弗里·乔叟，Geoffrey Chaucer，活跃在14世纪，著有经典的《坎特伯雷故事集》。原文如下：
We poor men, treasurers of Christ and his Apostles, denounce to the Lords and the Commons of the Parliament certain conclusions and truth for the reformation of the Holy Church of England, the which has been blind and leprous many years by the maintenance of the proud prelacy, borne up with flattering of private religion, the which is multiplied to a great charge and onerous [to] people here in England.
The First Conclusion:
State of The Church
When the Church of England began to dote in temporality after her stepmother, the great Church of Rome, and churches were slain by appropriation to diverse places. Faith, Hope, and Charity began for to flee out of our Church. For Pride with his sorry genealogy of deadly sins challengeth it by title of heritage. This conclusion is general and proved by experience, custom, and manner, as you shall after hear.
The Second Conclusion:
The Priesthood
The Second Conclusion is this: Our usual priesthood, the which began in Rome feigned of a power higher than angels, is not the priesthood the which Christ ordained to his Apostles. This conclusion is proved: for the priesthood of Rome is made with signs, rites, and bishops' blessings, and that is of little virtue. nowhere ensampled in the Holy Scripture, for the bishops ordinals in the New Testament be little of record. And we can not see that the Holy Ghost, for any such signs, gives any gifts, for he and his noble gifts may not stand with deadly sin in no matter person. The corollary of this conclusion is that it is full uncouth to many that be wise to see bishops play with the holy ghost in making of their orders, for they give crowns in characters in stead of white harts, and that is the livery of Antichrist, brought into Holy Church to color idleness.
The Third Conclusion:
Clerical Celibacy
The Third Conclusion, sorrowful to hear, is: That the law of continence annexed to priesthood, that in prejudice of women was first ordained, induces sodomy in Holy Church; but we excuse us by the Bible, for the suspect decree that says we should not name it. Reason and experience prove this conclusion. For delicious meats and drinks of men of Holy Church will have needful purgation or worse. Experience for the privy assay of such men is that they like not women. The corollary of this conclusion is that the private religions. beginners of this sin, were most worthy to be annulled but God, for his might, of privy sin send open vengeance.
The Fourth Conclusion:
Transubstantiation
The Fourth Conclusion that most harms the innocent people is this: That the sacrament of bread induces all men but a few to idolatry, for they ween that Christ's body, that never shall out of heaven, by virtue of the priest's word should be essentially enclosed in a little bread, that they show to the people. But would God that they would believe that the Doctor Evangelicus says in his Trialogue, quod panis materialis est habitudinaliter corpus Christi. For we suppose that on this wise may every true man and woman in God's law make the sacrament of the bread without any such miracle. The corollary of this conclusion is that if Christ's body be endued with everlasting joy, the service of Corpus Christi made by Friar Thomas is untrue and painted full of false miracles, and that is no wonder, for Friar Thomas that same time, holding with the Pope, would have made a miracle of a hen's egg, and we know well that every lie openly preached turns itself to villainy that ever was true and without lack.
The Fifth Conclusion
Exorcisms and Hallowings
The fifth conclusion is this: that exorcisms and hallowings, made in the church, of wine, bread, and wax, water, salt, oil and incense, the stone of the altar, upon vestment, miter, cross, and pilgrim staffs be the very practice of necromancy rather than of the holy theology. This conclusion is proved thus: For by such exorcisms creatures be charged to be of higher virtue than their own kind, and we see no thing of change in no such creature that is so charmed but by false belief, the which is the principal of the Devil's craft. The corollary of this, that is the book that charmeth holy water spread in Holy Church were all true, us thinks verily that holy water used in holy church should be the best medicine to all manner of sickness. Cuius contrarium experimur.
The Sixth Conclusion:
Clerics in Secular Offices
The sixth conclusion that maintaineth much pride is: that a king and a bishop all in one person, a prelate and a justice in temporal cause, a curate and an officer in worldly service, make every realm out of good rule. This conclusion is openly showed, for temporality and spirituality be two parts of Holy Church and therefore he that hath taken him to the one should not meddle him with the other, quia nemo potest duobus dominis servire. Us thinketh that hermaphrodite or ambidexter were a good name to such men of double estate. The corollary is that for we, procurators of God, for this cause pursue to this Parliament that all manner of curates, both high and low, be fully excused of temporal office and occupy them with their cure and naught else.
The Seventh Conclusion:
Prayers for the Dead
The Seventh conclusion that we mightily affirm is: that special prayers for dead men's souls made in our church, preferring one by name more than another, this is the false ground of alms deeds, on the which all alms houses in England be wickedly grounded. This conclusion is proven by two skills. One is for prayer meritorious and of value should be a work proceeding from high charity, and perfect charity accepts no persons, quia diliges proximum tuum, etc. Wherefore us thinks that the gifts of temporal goods to priests and to alms houses is the principal cause of special prayers, the which is not far from simony. Another skill for special prayer made for men damned to everlasting pain is to God greatly displeasing, and though it be doubt, it is lightly to true Christian people that the founders of the alms houses for their venomous donation be for the most part passed the broad way. The corollary is the prayer of value s[ringing out of perfect charity should embrace in general all those that God would have saved and leave their merchandise now used for special prayers made to mendicants and possessioners and other souls' priests, the which be a people of great charge to all the realm maintained in idleness, for it was proved in a book that the king heard that an hundred of alms houses sufficed to the realm and thereof should fall the greatest increase possible to temporal part.
The Eighth Conclusion:
Pilgrimages
The eighth conclusion needful to tell the people beguiled is the pilgrimage, prayers, and offerings made to blind roods and deaf images of tree and stone be near kin to idolatry and far from alms deeds. And though this forbidden imagery be a book of errors to the lewd people, yet the image used of Trinity is most abominable. This conclusion God openly showeth, commanding to do almsdeeds to men that be needy. for they be the image of God in a more likeness than the stock of the stone, for God sayeth not Faciamus lignum ad ymaginem et similitudinem nostram aut lapidem, but faciamus hominem etc. For the high worship that clerks call latria longeth to the godhead alone and the lower worship that is called dulia longeth to man and to angel and to lower creatures. The corollary is that the service of the Rood, done twice every year in our church, is fulfilled of idolatry, for if the Rood tree, nails, and the spear, and the crown of God should be so holy worshipped, then were Judas' lips, whoso might them get, a wonder great relic. But we pray thee, pilgrim, us to tell when thou first offerest to saints' bones enshrined in any place, whether relieves thou the saint that is in bliss or the alms house that is so well endowed. For men be canonized, God knows how, and for to speak more in plain, true Christian men suppose that the points of that noble man that men call Saint Thomas, were no cause of martyrdom.
The Ninth Conclusion:
Confession
The ninth conclusion that holdeth the people low is, that the articles of confession that is said necessary to the salvation of man, with a feigned power of absolution enhanceth priests' pride, and giveth them opportunity of calling other than we will not say. For lords and ladies be arrested that for fear of their confessors, that they dare not say a truth, and in time of confession is the best time of wooing and of privy continuance of deadly sin. They say that they be commissaries of God to deem of every sin, to foul and cleanse whomso they like. They say that they have the keys of heaven and of hell, they may curse and bless, bind and unbind at their own will, in so much that for a bushel of wheat or twelve pence by year they will sell the bliss of heaven by charter of clause of warranty, ensealed with the common seal. This conclusion is seen in use that it needeth none other proof. Correlarium: The Pope of Rome that feigneth him high treasurer of holy church, having the worthy jewel of Christ's passion in his keeping, with the deserts of all hallows of heaven, by which he giveth the pardon a pena et a culpa. He is a treasurer most banished out of charity, since he may deliver the prisoners that be in pain at his own will, and make himself so that he shall never come there, Here may every true Christian well see that there is much privy falseness hid in our church.
The Tenth Conclusion:
War, Battle, and Crusades
The tenth conclusion is that manslaughter by battle or law of righteousness for temporal cause or spiritual with out special revelation is express contrary to the New Testament, the which is a law of grace and full of mercy. This conclusion is openly proved by example of Christ's preaching here on earth. the which most taught to love and to have mercy on his enemies. and not for to slay them. The reason is of this, that for the more party, there men fight, after the first stroke charity is broken; and who so dyeth out of charity goth the high way to hell. And over this, we know well that no clerk can find by scripture or by reason lawful punishment of death for one sin and not for another. But the law of mercy, that is the New Testament, forbade all manslaughter: in euangelio dictum est antiquis. Non occides. The corollary is: it is an holy robbing of poor people when lords purchase indulgences a pena et a culpa to them that helpeth with his host. and gathereth to slay the Christian men in far lands for good temporal, as we have seen. And knights, that run to heathenness to get them a name in slaying of men, get much maugré of the King of Peace; for the meekness and sufferance our belief was multiplied, and fighters and manslayers Jesu Christ hateth and menaceth. Qui gladio percutit, gladio peribit.
The Eleventh Conclusion:
Female Vows of Continence and Abortion
The eleventh conclusion is shameful for to speak: that a vow of continence made in our church of women, the which be fickle and imperfect in kind, is cause of bringing in of most horrible sin possible to man kind. For though slaying of children ere they be christened, abortion, and destroying of kind by medicine be full sinful, yet knowing with themselves [i.e., having intercourse with] or [either] unreasonable beast or creature that beareth no life passeth in worthiness to be punished in pains of hell. The corollary is that widows and which as have taken the mantle and the ring, deliciously fed, we would they were wedded for we can not excuse them from privy sins.
The Twelfth Conclusion:
Arts and Crafts
The twelfth conclusion is that the multitude of crafts not needful used in our church nourisheth much sin in waste, curiosity, and disguising. This showeth experience, and reason proveth, for nature with a few crafts sufficeth to need of man. The corollary is, since Saint Paul sayeth, we having our bodily food and clothing, we should hold ourselves satisfied, us thinketh that goldsmiths and armourers and all manner crafts not needful to men, after [according to] the Apostle, should be destroyed for the increase of virtue. For though to these crafts named were much more needful in the Old Law, the New testament hath voided these and many others.
This is our embassy, that Christ has commanded us to pursue, at this time most acceptable for many causes. And though these matters be here shortly knit they be in another book longly declared, and may another more, all in our language, the which we would were communed to all true Christian men. We pray God of his endless goodness reform our church. all out of joint, to the perfections of the first beginning. Amen.
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