The focus of this reflective practice (RP) project was to investigate how to integrate cultural aspects into the teaching of ESOL conversation to a beginner migrant. I chose this focus for two reasons: First, my learner indicated to me that developing spoken English skills was extremely important to her, since she needed to communicate with native speakers and the culture behind conversations also led to communication problems. Second, two important stages of culture teaching—linking culture and language meaningfully and reflecting on one’s culture—were neglected in my former English language teaching experience.
My reflective journey began with a literature review. According to Conway, Harvey, Richards and Roskvist (2010), cultural knowledge is as important as linguistic knowledge for developing communicative competence. To foster intercultural competence, teachers should provide chances for learners to practise culture-related knowledge and the target language in the classroom and the real world. This is done because intercultural competence cannot form naturally (Newton, 2009; Schulz, Sinicrope, & Watanabe, 2007; Sercu, 2004). Therefore, teachers of a foreign or second language should also stress cultural teaching rather than just vocabulary and grammar.
According to Conway et al. (2010, p. 454), the main stages of intercultural language teaching (ICLT) are “Make connections—Compare and contrast—Link culture and language—Reflect on own culture—Intercultural competence”, which is a sequence used by many key writers in the field and is more fully considered than some other frameworks. I encountered four main challenges in culture teaching: (1) how to encourage students to reflect on their culture, (2) how to integrate these aspects into a language lesson naturally and appropriately, (3) how to encourage students to make meaning about their language and culture and the target language and culture and (4) identifying effective ways to improve intercultural competence. I decided to make these problems the foci of the four reflective essays and find out the answers through four different RP methods. In this essay, I will summarise my learning, confirm my theory of teaching, identify remaining gaps and state a plan for future development in this area.
Summary of Learning
RP Method 1: Tutor Observation
I adopted this method to examine whether and to what extent my questions about culture encourage learners to reflect. I chose tutor observation as a data collection tool because receiving feedback (on the good and bad parts of the lesson based on the learner’s reaction) from an experienced teacher like my tutor can make it easier to think about the problems of the lesson and can trigger further reflection. It is also a chance for her to understand my thinking and find out how to help me better in the future.
To begin with, I discovered from the tutor observation feedback that learners’ inability to answer reflection questions could be due to several reasons such as the limitations of their language level and their anxiety or confusion about which aspect of the question to answer. For example, as noted in the feedback, the learner said “I don’t know” when I asked “Can you notice any differences/similarities between seeing a doctor in New Zealand and in China?” However, after eliciting answers (giving pictures, asking other simple questions and encouraging her to answer questions in her language), she began to reflect and answer.
In addition, I began to understand that to effectively encourage learners to reflect, a teacher needs to prepare suitable pictures and questions to elicit the expected answers. For instance, when I showed the learner a picture of a white doctor at the beginning of the lesson, she said “He is a pharmacist” without any facial expression. However, when I showed her a picture of a Chinese medical doctor, she responded immediately and laughed.
Moreover, I realised that we should take into consideration learners’ language levels and awareness of their culture and help them achieve their goal progressively. This means that the answers to the questions should not be too broad and that big questions should be divided into several small questions.
Finally, I learned that translation is useful as a means of comparison in preparation for reflection because it could save much trouble, particularly when teaching a beginner. Doing some research on the learner’s cultural background is necessary, for it could prevent the teacher from focusing too much on the culture of the target language and neglecting the learner’s culture/language.
RP Method 2: Discussing a Lesson Plan
I felt I would greatly benefit from discussing the lesson plan with my tutor, since this could help me focus on the bigger picture of whether the cultural aspects could be integrated into the appropriate stages of the lesson. The better I saw the big picture, the greater the opportunity for a successful lesson.
First, I discovered from the discussion that teachers should provide sufficient in-depth questions for learners to think about. For example, the learner, in light of the different medical systems in New Zealand and China, pointed out differences between the countries’ primary school educational systems. This shows that asking “why” questions is important not only because it could encourage learners to find a deeper relationship between cultural influences and people’s behaviour, but also because it cultivates independent thinking. Therefore, the reflection part should come later on in the lesson, since it requires a deeper understanding. I found many researchers who echoed my views. For example, Skene (2014) pointed out that reflection could be a writing task after class; this would facilitate the development of in-depth reflection, since students do not need to rush through their work.
Second, I learned from the discussion that teachers do not need to explain too many points of cultural knowledge in great detail at the beginning of the lesson during lead-in and prediction, which would be a distraction. Rather, they should integrate some cultural information into the post-teaching stage. The lead-in stage may be taken as an example: According to Thaine (2015), its main aim is to activate students’ schemata of personal experience to stimulate interest in the lesson and make it easier to teach the target language. Richards, Conway, Roskvist and Harvey (2010) also mentioned that before teaching a conversation, the teacher should make connections first to pique students’ interest at the beginning of the lesson so that they appreciate its relevance to their daily lives. Thus, it is unnecessary to expand on too many cultural details.
Third, to avoid falling into stereotypes, the cultural questions should be based on the learner’s situation. For example, I should ask “What do you call a doctor in China?” instead of “What do people call a doctor in China?”
Finally, after the discussion with my tutor, I reinforced my belief about how the main aspects of ICLT should be integrated into each teaching stage. The teacher could integrate the stages of ICLT identified by Conway et al. (2010, p. 454)—namely (1) make connections, (2) compare and contrast, (3) link culture and language, (4) reflect on one’s culture and (5) intercultural competence—into the lesson stages of (1) pre-teaching (with a lead-in), (2) input (gist/detailed listening/reading), (3) input (clarification of meaning and form) and (4 and 5) post-teaching (practice, homework), respectively.
RP Method 3: Reflective Journal
I adopted this method to examine how using pictures could be an effective way to make meaning about the learners’ language and culture and the target language and culture. I felt that the reflective process would be augmented by keeping a journal, since reflective journaling immediately after each teaching event enhances my memory of the learner’s reaction and what was successful or what should be avoided. In addition, in view of the focus of this reflective essay (using pictures), journals are more convenient than other data collection tools because I can include in them the pictures I used in the lessons.
First, I discovered from the reflective journal that to stimulate the creation of meaning about the languages and cultures, a teacher should use pictures that are easily named in both the first (L1) and second language (L2). According to Falihi and Wason-Ellam (2009, p. 409), “Our ability to interpret any visual experience is cumulative depending on previous similar and different experiences and specific understanding of those experiences”. Therefore, using pictures from the learners’ culture means they will be able to recall their own experience, will have more things to share and may even try to use the target language before they are taught, which may make the teaching and learning process later on more successful.
Second, it is important to use pictures as tools while explaining or comparing cultural differences because pictures are very helpful in making abstract things concrete. For example, in the third lesson, I pointed to a picture and explained the differences between Chinese and New Zealanders in terms of giving directions, and the learner understood immediately.
Third, pictures—especially the same set of pictures over and over again—should not be the only kind of visual support. Teachers should keep updating their teaching materials, stay open minded and try to use real objects or combine new technology in a language class if possible. For instance, when D and I talked about what she did when she lost her way, she told me that she seldom asked other people for help and always used Google Maps instead. Also, LC was more engaged in the lesson when I took out my credit and debit cards while explaining the differences between them.
RP Method 4: Student Survey
I adopted this method to examine the effective ways to improve intercultural competence. I chose the student survey as a data collection tool because in my former reflective teaching practice, I focused on how to apply theory in light of the literature and did not pay much attention to the learner’s perceptions. However, knowing students’ perspectives is essential because it can help improve a teacher’s practice and deliver tangible data that inform better decisions in the future.
First, I discovered from the survey results that the learner considered “communicating more with native English speakers” as the most effective way to improve intercultural competence, since she believed she could learn more during such communication and do so naturally without mechanical memorisation. Thus, language teachers should set an after-class task for each lesson and let students practise the target language as much as possible in the classroom so that they feel more confident when they talk with native speakers.
Second, it became evident to me that providing learners with chances to reflect on their cultures through the eyes of others is essential. Pulverness (2004) stated that while being able to understand cultural messages is important, learners may also resist it when necessary and assert their own identity. Yet if they do not have a chance to reflect, they may not know what to resist or what to accept. Therefore, teachers should make reflection an indispensable part of language teaching. Through reflection, learners can establish their own identities instead of following other cultures blindly. It is also a good way for them to deepen their understanding of the cultural differences between the L1 and the L2. I also discovered that effective ways to trigger such reflection include making comparisons and asking in-depth questions.
Third, I was surprised to find that giving information on culture is, by itself, not very helpful in improving intercultural competence, which had been believed important before the survey. In the survey, the learner mentioned that it was not useful to simply receive information/knowledge about culture without the chance to practise it. According to Newton, Yates, Shearn and Nowitzki (2009, p. 68), teaching culture is more than just teaching facts; it also “involves learners in constructing knowledge from experience and reflection”, which, in turn, can cultivate intercultural competence. Therefore, language teachers, instead of merely focusing on giving cultural knowledge, should also provide more chances for learners to practise and examine whether they can apply the cultural knowledge they have learned to achieve the goal of communication.
Furthermore, teachers should not require students to behave in exactly the same way as a native speaker nor have them imitate others without giving reasons.
Confirmation of Theory and Remaining Gaps
Confirmation of Theory
The outcomes of the above methods of data collection confirm that the five main aspects of ICLT are as follows: (1) making connections, (2) comparing and contrasting, (3) linking culture and language and making meaning, (4) reflecting on one’s culture and (5) intercultural competence. The teacher could integrate these stages into the lesson stages of (1) pre-teaching (with a lead-in), (2) input (gist/detailed listening/reading), (3) input (clarification of meaning and form) and (4 and 5) post-teaching (practice, homework), respectively.
The most important stages and core notions of ICLT are to improve learners’ intercultural competence by providing them with chances to practise target language in the classroom and in real life and to encourage them to reflect on their culture through the eyes of others so that they can establish their own identities and develop independent thinking. Effective ways to trigger such reflection include making comparisons, asking in-depth questions and making good use of appropriate images. In addition, it is not a good idea to share information/knowledge about culture in class without accompanying it with practice.
Remaining Gaps
In the former teaching practices, I focused more on culture teaching in class. However, I overlooked the fact that learners spend more time outside class and that the improvement of intercultural competence depends on how they spend their spare time. Therefore, the remaining gap of my intercultural practice is identifying what kind of after-class task can encourage students to practise more and communicate more with other English speakers.
High-technology products, applications and social networking services are developing quickly and have provided language teachers and students with many useful tools and resources. For example, the computer-supported online 3D visual world, Second Life, offers a pleasurable online environment for people with different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other, which provides unlimited possibilities for language and culture learning. Therefore, I will also try to encourage learners to finish their after-class tasks using online visual worlds or other social networking services, e.g. Facebook and Twitter and examine their usefulness.
Plan for Future Professional Development
Since communicating with others is regarded as the most helpful way to improve intercultural competence, I will focus on identifying after-class tasks that can encourage students to practise more and communicate more with other English speakers (they do not have to be native speakers since it may not be very easy to achieve). I would like to use the tool of teaching journals, since journaling could cultivate my capacity for independent thinking and analysis, which would be a great help for my future career and development.
The teaching journals will be about after-class tasks; they will allow me to record and analyse what the learners have done to complete the tasks, how well the learners have done them and what they can learn from them. Table 1 presents the format that I will use in the journal.
Table 1. Teaching journal
Date
Aim of the task
Content of the task
Has the learner finished this task?
What was good about this task?
Problem that the learner encountered while doing the task
What the learner can learn from it
What can be changed next time
Learner score (0–10)
References
Conway, C., Richards, H., Harvey, S., & Roskvist, A. (2010). Teacher provision of opportunities for learners to develop language knowledge and cultural knowledge. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30, 449–462.
Falihi, A., & Wason-Ellam, L. (2009). Critical visuality: On the development of critical visual literacy for learners’ empowerment. The International Journal of Learning, 16(3), 409-417.
Newton, J. (2009). A place for ‘intercultural’ communicative language teaching (ICLT) in New Zealand? The TESOLANZ Journal, 17, 1-12.
Newton, J., Yates, E., Shearn, S., & Nowitzki, W. (2009). Intercultural communicative language teaching (iCLT): Implications for effective teaching and learning. Available athttp://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/curriculum/76637/introduction
Pulverness, A. (2004, January). Here and there: Issues in materials development for intercultural learning. Paper presented at Culture in ELT Seminar: Intercultural Materials in the Classroom and on the Web, British Council, Krakow, Poland. Retrieved fromhttp://www. academia. edu/268758/
Richards, H., Conway, C., Roskvist, A., & Harvey, S. (2010). Intercultural language learning (ICLL): Awareness and practice of in-service language teachers on a professional development programme. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics, 16(1), 1–15.
Sercu, L. (2004) Assessing intercultural competence: A framework for systematic test development in foreign language education and beyond. Intercultural Education,15(1), 73-89. doi: 10.1080/1467598042000190004
Schulz, R. (2007). The challenge of assessing cultureal understanding in the context of foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 40(1), 9-26.
Sinicrope, C., Norris, J. & Watanabe, Y. (2007) Understanding and assessing intercultural competence: A summary of theory, research, and practice. Technical Report for the Foreign Language Program Evaluation Project. University of Hawai ‘I at Manoa’ .
Retrieved fromhttp://www.hawaii.edu/sls/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Norris.pdf
Skene, C. 2014. Investigating reciprocal meaning-making as an element of intercultural language learning in the languages classroom. Babel, 48(2/3), 49–58.
Thaine, C. (2015). Cambridge CELTA: Stages of a Text-Based Grammar Clarification [Class Handout]. Language International Teacher Education Centre, Auckland, New Zealand.
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