When George Washington announced he would not seek reelection in 1796, the nation was more divided than it had ever been. The battle for power between Republicans and Federalists was the primary political reality of the period. In 1796, the Federalists were winning this battle, and controlled Congress, the judiciary, and the presidency under newly elected John Adams. Adams set out to continue the development of the infant nation and solidify Federalist power and principles of government. His first challenge came in the realm of international relations. In response to the seizure of American ships at sea, Adams began what became known as the Quasi-war, in which neither the US nor France declared war against one another but during which the two sides engaged in naval conflict.
In preparation for a possible open war with France, Adams built up the military through heavy taxes and heavy expenditures. In addition, the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts. These acts were drafted to protect the United States from foreign threats to national security, but their effect was to imprison or deport immigrants without a fair trial, and to brutally silence all political opposition. Outraged at the gall of the Federalists, the population voted overwhelmingly Republican in the election of 1800, in which Thomas Jefferson emerged victorious.
1796年,乔治·华盛顿宣布他将不再继续任职美国总统,这时美国以一种前所未有的分崩离析状态呈现在了世人面前。共和党和联邦党的权力之争是当时的主要政治问题。1796年,联邦党在选举中获胜,约翰·亚当斯成为国家总统,联邦党由此控制了国会、司法机构和白宫。亚当斯大力促进这个新生国家的发展,巩固联邦权利和政府制度。他面临的第一个挑战是国际关系问题。美国船只在公海遭到扣押,出于反抗,亚当斯开始了对法国的“准战争”,这是一场未经公开宣战的的美法海军战争。与法国的正面冲突随时可能爆发,为了应对这场战争,亚当斯征重税供养军队。另外,国会在联邦党的控制下颁布了《客籍法和镇压叛乱法》。这些法案的目的是维护国家安全、保护美国免受外界威胁,但实际却不分缘由地对移民进行监禁或将其驱逐出境,并残酷镇压各类政治反对派。联邦党这一系列作为激起了美国人民的众怒,在1800年的选举中,共和党以压倒性的优势获得了美国人民的支持,托马斯·杰斐逊(Thomas Jefferson)由此赢得选举。
Jefferson would later describe his election in 1800 as a "revolution" because of the sharp swing in political ideology it signaled in America. Indeed, Jefferson quickly set about tearing down the remnants of Federalist government, beginning with the army and the accumulated national debt. One of the most prominent forums in which he attacked Federalist power was in the judicial system, even going so far as to support the impeachment of two federal judges.
后来,杰斐逊将他在1800年的当选描述为一场“革命”,因为这标志着美国政治意识形态的巨大转变。杰斐逊从军队和累积的国债着手,很快清除了联邦党控制的政府残余力量。在他对联邦势力进行清除的过程中,最引人注目的是他对司法系统的抨击,期间他甚至公开支持弹劾两名联邦法官。
In 1803 Jefferson engineered the Louisiana Purchase, more than doubling the size of the US. The Louisiana Purchase may have been the most important event in the first half-century of American history, immediately opening the West to exploration and settlement. Lewis and Clark, now legends of American history, were the most well known explorers of the Louisiana Territory.
1803年,杰斐逊主导购买路易斯安那州,由此将美国的国土面积扩大了一倍多。购买路易斯安那州这一作为,可能是美国历史上半世纪最为重要的大事件,它为西部探索和国民定居开辟了新道路。刘易斯和克拉克,作为美国历史上的传奇人物,是路易斯安那地区最广为人知的探险家。
However, the Louisiana Purchase also opened the United States to foreign conflict, as many nations strove to achieve dominance in the affairs of North America. Shortly after the US took possession of the new territory, disputes arose with Spain over its borders. In an effort to solve America's territorial problems, Thomas Jefferson entered into negotiations with Napoleon Bonaparte of France, who saw in the dispute a chance to strengthen France's influence in North America and manipulate international affairs favorably.
然而,购买路易斯安那州同时也招致了美国与外国的冲突,当时许多国家对北美的主导权虎视眈眈。美国占领这块新领土后不久,就与西班牙在边界问题上产生了矛盾。为了解决美国的领土问题,托马斯·杰斐逊与法国的拿破仑·波拿巴(Napoleon Bonaparte)进行了谈判,波拿巴将这场争端中视为加强法国在北美影响力和取得国际事务操纵权的有利机会。
Jefferson's willingness to engage in international politics with the conniving Bonaparte spurred some Republicans to leave the party and form a faction known as the Tertium Quids, which while they did not seriously challenge Jefferson's power or that of the Republican majority, showed that disunity was a possibility within the Republican Party and had to be guarded against. Another challenge to Jefferson and to the nation was the Aaron Burr conspiracy, an ill-fated attempt by the former vice president to attack Texas and secede from the Union with settlers from the southwest frontier. These two internal challenges well in hand, Jefferson was able to turn his attention to increasing tensions between the US and both Britain and France.
在国际政治问题上,杰斐逊对专横的拿破仑·波拿巴表现出的合作态度激起了部分共和党人的不满,他们脱离共和党,另外成立了“第三派”(Tertium Quids),“第三派”并没有过分挑战杰斐逊或共和党的权利,他们只是借此警告,杰斐逊需要谨慎作为,否则他们有可能让共和党内部出现分裂。杰斐逊和美国面临的另一个挑战是亚伦·伯尔阴谋,这位前副总统试图攻击德克萨斯,并伙同当地来自西南边境的定居者脱离政府管辖,这一企图注定以失败告终。在两个国家内部问题得到妥善解决后,杰斐逊才有精力将注意力转向与英国、法国日益紧张的国际关系问题上。
Britain and France, at war with one another, each tried to use the United States as a pawn with which to harm the other. The United States found itself the victim of an economic war, its merchant ships seized by both nations and its neutrality in jeopardy. Jefferson responded in 1807 with the Embargo Act which isolated the US from the world economically. Though he hoped to force France, and especially Britain, into respecting US neutrality, the US was the first nation to give in, lifting the Embargo Act in 1809 with nothing more than a depressed economy to show for it. Though Jefferson's final endeavor as president was a distinct failure, he is generally considered a success, and the Republicans continued to enjoy the support of the majority of the American people after he left office.
英法两国处于对战状态,他们都想把美国当作一枚棋子来消耗对方。美国成了这场经济战争的受害者,美国的商船被英国和法国扣押,在这场战争中秉持的中立地位也岌岌可危。作为对英法对战的回应,1807年,杰斐逊颁布《禁运法案》,在经济上将美国与世界隔离开来。杰斐逊希望借此迫使法国,尤其是英国,尊重美国的中立态度,但结果三者之间,美国成了第一个被迫屈服的国家,因为《禁运法案》给美国带来了严重的经济低迷,导致在1809年不得不解除《禁运法案》。虽然杰斐逊在任职期间的最后一项决策是失败的,但他被公认为是一位成功的美国总统,在他离任后,大多数美国人民仍对共和党表示支持。
1797-1809美国历届总统
乔治·华盛顿:美国首任总统(1789年-1797年),美国独立战争大陆军总司令。1793年再度当选。美国首任总统,被美国称为“国父,美国独立战争大陆军总司令。连任两届后自愿放弃权力不再续任,开始隐退。由于他扮演了美国独立战争和建国中最重要的角色,故被尊称为美国国父。
约翰·亚当斯:美国第2任总统(1797年-1801年),亚当斯亦是《独立宣言》签署者之一,被美国人视为最重要的开国元勋之一,同华盛顿、杰斐逊和富兰克林齐名。他的长子约翰·昆西·亚当斯后当选为美国第6任总统。
托马斯·杰斐逊:美国第3任总统(1801年--1809年)。是美国著名的《独立宣言》的主要起草人。美国政治家、思想家、哲学家、科学家、教育家,第三任美国总统。他是美国独立战争期间的主要领导人之一,1776年,作为一个包括约翰·亚当斯和本杰明·富兰克林在内的起草委员会的成员,起草了美国《独立宣言》。此后,他先后担任了美国第一任国务卿,第二任副总统和第三任总统。
杰弗逊和华盛顿总统,是对创新发明非常重视的第一代开国者。在美国革命的动荡岁月里,两个人都没忘记抽空向英国和欧洲大陆订购花种、菜子,写信给家里关照不要错过了播种新品种的季节。
当华盛顿担任美国第一任总统的时候,他请杰斐逊担任国务卿。那个时候,世界上最强大的是英国,制造业中心在英国和欧洲大陆,美国只是偏远落后的农林产品输出地,向欧洲出口棉花,木材,烟草,大米,羊毛,几乎所有工业制品都从欧洲进口。
第一代美国领袖知道,虽然美国有资源,但是如果它不制造,它就永远不是一个强国。谁制造谁强大,是工业革命时代的铁律。为此,美国必须广罗技术人才,有人才才会有自己的制造业。从此开创了美国特别优待技术人才的传统。至今为止,美国人有一个不成文的共识:美国必须是全世界给人才以最好条件的地方。什么地方给人才的条件比美国好,美国肯定会提出更好的条件,超过那个地方。
1790年,华盛顿就任总统的第二年,他就让杰斐逊尽快确立专利保护制度。就在华盛顿总统任内,杰斐逊一手操办,美国通过了保护创新和发明的专利法,从此美国成为世界上保护创新最严格的地方。很简单,这就是美国为人才提供的最好的条件。
今天我们再次重温这位思想巨匠的教育箴言,依然会为其思想的光芒、人格的无穷魅力和高瞻远瞩的远见所折服。下面节选和总结其部分教育理念以资共勉。
1. 关于国民教育:人民自身乃是一个社会最终权力的安全保障所在。对国民进行有益的教育是建立有秩序社会的良好途径之一。
2. 关于大学的创办:从这所机构源源不断散发出去的指导和影响,将确保我国的声誉、安定及繁荣以及日后对大众思想的培养和完善所带来的一切福祉。
3. 关于古典文献的学习:所有古代经典的语言是所有学科的入门性奠基石;我们可以将其作为写作中品味纯粹的范本;对古代经典作品的研读可以使我们领略到他们原文著作所带类的各种美感中最极致奢华的一种。这些经典的语言给我们带来的财富隐藏并传递与真实的科学领域中。
4. 关于教材的使用:在大多数情况下应由教授本人就教学过程中应该使用的特定教材做出选择。
5. 关于课程的设置:a.就学科的重要性而言,农学应该是首屈一指的。有关农学这门学科的教职员工及该专业的学生应该首先得到大家的尊重。
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美国建国史(1754-1763) : 英法开战,争夺北美殖民地霸权(法印战争)
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