旋元佑进阶语法（三）（副词 + 比较句法）

第五章 副词
第六章 比较句法

第五章 副词

1.1 副词修饰的对象

英语的修饰语有形容词和副词这两种。形容词是用来修饰名词的修饰语，副词通常是用来修饰动词、形容词与副词的修饰语,偶尔修饰下名词。

1.2 副词的种类与在句中的位置

• 副词和形容词一样，也是一种修饰语。关于修饰语，有一条基本的修辞原则：修饰语和 它所修饰的对象最好尽量接近，这样会比较清楚。另一条基本的修辞原则是：修饰语不应该 有两个以上可能修饰的对象而造成模棱两可、语意不清的后果。
• 一般说来，副词在句中的位置比形容词具有更大的弹性。不同种类的副词，在句中放置 的位置也各不相同。

1.2.1 方法状态的副词（adverbs of manner）

表示方法状态的副词，是修饰动词专用的修饰语.原则上它应该放在接近动词的位置， 也就是放在动词的前面或者后面。但是，因为副词是可有可无的修饰语、不是主要元素，所以句子中如果有宾语、补语等等主要元素时，方法状态的副词或者放在动词前面、或者就要 被挤到宾语、补语等元素的后面去。

1. S+V

The dog barked furiously at the mailman.
The dog furiously barked at the mailman.
方法状态的副词 furiously 修饰动词 barked，直接放在动词后面，或者可以放在动词前面

2. S+V+C

He stayed single reluctantly.
He stayed reluctantly single. （不佳）(因为不知道要修饰stay 还是 single,混淆)
He reluctantly stayed single.

3. S+V+O

He openly harassed the girl sitting at the counter.
(他公开骚扰那个坐在柜台的女孩。)
He harassed the girl sitting at the counter openly. （不佳）
(这种讲法，意思可能是「公开骚扰」、也可能是「公开坐在柜台」，是模棱两可的说法。)
He harassed the girl openly sitting at the counter.
(方法状态的副词 openly 放在这个位置就是修饰后面的 sitting。，变成「公开坐在柜台」)

4. S+V+O+O

His father bought him a car generously.
His father generously bought him a car .
The student politely asked the speaker a question.
The student asked the speaker a question politely.

5. S+V+O+C

I consider you a member of the family proudly.
I proudly consider you a member of the family.

1.2.2 频率副词（adverbs of frequency）

像 always, frequently, usually, often, seldom, hardly, never… 之类，这些副词用于修饰动作发生的频率，是修饰动词专用的副词。它的位置应该放在动词前后：一般是放在普通动词的前面、be 动词与助动词的后面。不过，这种动词的位置也很有弹性，往往可以移到句首或句尾等其他位置。

I usually get up very early.
His jokes are often not funny at all.
I have never seen this man before.
Occasionally I spend a whole day in the multiplex.
Seldom does he leave the office before seven.
如果把具有否定意味的频率副词移到句首、用来加强语气，就必须采取倒装句法

1.2.3 强调范围的副词（focusing adverbs）

这种副词有一项特色，就是它修饰的词类不拘：不论是名词、动词、形容词、还是副词， 四种主要的词类都可以用它来修饰。

John saw the boss yesterday. (约翰昨天见到了老板。)
Only John saw the boss yesterday. (只有约翰昨天见到了老板。)
John only saw the boss yesterday.(约翰昨天只是见到了老板.)(意思可能是并没有能够和老板谈话。)
John saw only the boss yesterday.(约翰昨天见到的只有老板一人。)
John saw the boss only yesterday. (约翰到昨天才见到了老板。)(意思可能是说更早的时候并没有能够见到)

1.2.4 加强语气的副词（intensifiers）

和强调范围的副词一样，加强语气的副词也是修饰的对象不拘、四大词类都可以用它来 修饰。

You are absolutely a genius! (修饰名词词组 a genius)
The test is extremely difficult. (修饰形容词 difficult)
Your hair badly needs cutting.(修饰动词 needs)
Time passed amazingly fast. (修饰副词 fast)

1.2.5 程度副词（adverbs of degree）

这又是一种修饰对象不拘、四大词类都可以用它来修饰的副词
程度副词和加强语气副词的区别为：去掉副词，如果句意不变为加强语气副词，变了为程度副词

Your son is quite a man now. （修饰名词词组 a man）
I barely know John. (此修饰动词 know)
He plays the piano rather well.(此修饰副词 well)
That is a fairly long story (修饰形容词 long)

1.2.6 连接副词（conjuncts）

这种副词，意思和并列连词（and, or, but）类似，但是缺乏连词的语法功能。亦即， 连接副词可以用来表示前后两个从句之间的逻辑关系，但是不能用它来连接两个从句，必须 借助标点符号：加上分号把两个从句分开，或者用句点之类断开变成两句话。

Sales have increased 20%; besides, production cost has come down. Consequently, we should have no problem reaching our goals this year.However, projections for the next fiscal year are not very optimistic.
两个完整的句子之间没有连词、却直接打个逗点就连在一起，这是写作时最常犯的错误之一：
He is short, however, he plays basketball well. （误）(一个句子出现两个谓语啦！！)

1.2.7 分离副词 (disjuncts)

一般语法书都说这种副词是修饰全句的副词，这种说法也可以接受。不过，如果深入观 察省略的情形，就可以看出这种副词原本属于另一个从句，是该从句中的方法、状态副词。
Theoretically, your proposal might work. (理论上，你提的案子可能行得通。)
Theoretically (speaking), your proposal might work. (从理论上说，你提的案子可能行得通。)
(If we are speaking) theoretically, your proposal might work. (如果我们从理论上来说，你提的案子可能行得通。)

• 画底线部分（if we are speaking theoretically）是个表示条件的状语从句，句中的 theoretically 是个方法、状态的副词，修饰动词 speak 的「方式」。但是，整个状语从句减化 到只剩下一个副词 theoretically，这种情况就称为分离副词（因为它并不是主要从句里面的 一个副词），也就是传统语法所谓「修饰整句话」的副词。

1.2.8 介副词（particles）

所谓介副词，就是一些看起来像介词、后面却不加宾语，直接拿来当副词使用的字。

Were you in last night? (介副词 in 当主语补语使用，修饰主语 you。)
Don’t look down. (介副词 down 修饰动词 look。)

1.2.9 可以修饰名词的副词

除了以上整理的加强语气的副词、强调范围的副词、程度副词、以及介副词这四种副词 之外，还有时间副词与地方副词这两种也是可以修饰名词的副词。

The final game tomorrow is going to be exciting.
(句中的 tomorrow 是时间副词，修饰前面的名词词组 the final game。)
All the people here are your friends.
(句中的 here 是地方副词，修饰前面的名词词组 all the people。)

• 时间副词与地方副词，这两种副词最常见的用法还是用来修饰动词的。这时候，这两种副词通常放在句尾：地方副词在前、时间副词在后。

He had an accident there yesterday

• 不过，时间副词与 地方副词的位置也很有弹性，可放句首

Yesterday, around this very corner, a bomb exploded.

1.2.10 可以当补语的副词

补语（包括主语补语和宾语补语）最常见的词类是名词和形容词。但是时间副词、地方副词与介副词也都可以当补语使用。

The exam is only one week away. It’s next Friday.
时间副词词组 only one week away 和 next Friday 分别在这两个句子中担任主语补语角色。
The police is here. Something’s up.
地方副词 here 和介副词 up 分别在这两个句子中担任主语补语角色。

1.3 副词种类与位置的比较

Your demand is practically impossible to meet.（你的要求几乎不可能做到。）
Let’s discuss this problem practically. （我们用很实际的方式来讨论一下这个问题。）
Practically, you don’t stand a chance in court. （实际一点来说，你上法庭根本没有机会赢。）
第 1 句中的 practically 是个程度副词，修饰形容词 impossible，表示「几乎不可能」， 应置于 impossible 前面。第 2 句中的 practically 是方法状态副词，修饰动词 discuss 的方式， 应置于宾语 this problem 后面。第 3 句中的 practically 是个分离副词，是 practically speaking 的省略，应置于句首

His ideas are generally very helpful.
He described the plan generally, without much detail.
Generally, I like his ideas.
第 1 句中的 generally 是个频率副词，修饰动词 are，表示「通常」，应置于动词后面。 第 2 句中的 generally 是方法状态副词，修饰动词 describe 的方式，应置于宾语 the plan 后面。 第 3 句中的 generally 是个分离副词，是 generally speaking 的省略，应置于句首。

1.4 副词的位置与清楚性

副词的位置如果放得不恰当，读者可能会无法判断它修饰的对像是谁，因而造成模棱两可的结果

The boss wanted this man to be punished badly. （不佳）
The boss badly wanted this man to be punished. （老板很想要处罚这个人。）
The boss wanted this man to be badly punished. （老板要这个人受到严厉处罚。）

The man was seen clearly to be dying. （不佳）
The man was clearly seen to be dying. （很明显看得出来这个人快要死了。）
The man was seen to be clearly dying. （看得出来这个人很明显快要死了。）

He confessed that he had been abusing his wife openly. （不佳）
He openly confessed that he had been abusing his wife. （他公开承认他有在虐待他老婆。）
He confessed that he had been openly abusing his wife. （他承认他有在公开虐待他老婆。）

1.5 形容词与副词的判断

该用形容词还是该用副词，应该视句型的要求而定。

When you shake someone’s hand, you should hold it firmly, to show sincerity.
(主要从句是 S+V+O 的句型，方法状态的副词 firmly 置于宾语后面、修饰动词 hold。)
Hold the camera firm while you take the picture.
(用形容 词 firm 当宾语补语，修饰宾语 camera（表示「相机稳」的结果）)
The enemy is advancing. Stand firm.
(形容词 firm 是主语补语，修饰的对像是命令句省略掉的主语 you)

The man wiped the windshield clean.
(这是 S+V+O+C 的句型，形容词 clean 是宾语补语，修饰宾语 windshield。)
He types cleanly and neatly.
（他打字又干净又整齐。）
He clean forgot to pick up his wife at the station.
这个句子中，clean 不是形容词而是加强语气的副词，相当于 completely，放在动词 forget前面修饰它。
The teacher explained the lesson clearly.
(方法状态的副词 clearly 修饰动词 explain。)
She made the lesson very clear to all her students.
这是 S+V+O+C 的句型，形容词 clear 是宾语补语，修饰宾语 lesson。

第六章 比较句法

英语的修饰语包括形容词与副词，都有比较级与最高级的变化。以连词 as 或 than 连接的比较级句子，不论是形容词还是副词的比较级，都可以视为主要从句加从属从句构成的复合句结构：从属连词 than 或 as 引导的从句是状语从句。

1.1 大于、小于、等于

1.1.1 大于

Unit 3 is longer than Unit 4.
（第三课比第四课长。）
Unit 3 is longer** [than Unit 4 is]**.

1. 从属连词 than 引导的从句（中括号内的部分）是个状语从句，修饰前面的形容词 longer——也就是两个从句之间重复的那个比较点。请注意：状语从句中的补语 long 被省略 掉了。这是比较句法的一个特色：从属从句当中，重复的比较点必须省略。
2. 并列从句的特色是可以省略掉两个从句间重复的部分。比较级的句子虽然是从属从句， 但是它也具有同样的特色，可以省略掉重复的部分。例如前面那个句子，从属从句的动词是 be 动词，和主要从句的动词一样，所以可以省略为：
   Unit 3 is longer [than Unit 4].
3. 一般的从属从句，不论是名词从句、表语从句、还是状语从句，不会有这种情况出现（省略到只剩下连词和主语），只有比较级这种介乎并列从句和从属从句之间的句法才看 得到这种情况。另外，比较级的从属从句还可以选择倒装，如下：
   Unit 3 is longer [than is Unit 4].

1.1.2 小于

要表示「小于」的关系，可以采用 less … than 或 not so … as 这两种句法。

Unit 3 is less difficult than Unit 4.
Unit 3 is less difficult [than Unit 4 (is)]. (is difficult 可省)
Unit 3 is less difficult [than is Unit 4]. （倒装）
Unit 3 is not so important as Unit 4.

1.1.3 等于

「等于」的关系，可以用 as … as 来连接

Unit 4 is as boring as Unit 3.
句中的第 2 个 as 是从属连词，第 1 个 as 则是程度副词，修饰形容词 boring。另外， 在第 1 个 as 前面还可以安插「倍数」来表现「大于」或「小于」的比较
Unit 4 is twice as difficult as Unit 3.（大于）
Unit 3 is half as difficult as Unit 4.（小于）

1.2 准关系代词

1. His father left him much money
2. He can spend not so much money.
   His father left him more money [than he can ever spend].
   （他父亲留下来的钱，他一辈子也花不完。）

1. This university cannot possibly take in many students.
2. Many students meet its requirements.
   This university cannot possibly take in as many students [as meet its requirements].
   （这家大学不可能把所有符合条件的学生全部招收进来。）
   中括号内的部分不是表语从句而是状语从句，这个状语从句修 饰的对象不是名词词组 many students，而是其中的限定符 many。从句开头的 as 不是关系词， 而是外加的从属连词。状语从句内的主语 many students 并不是改写成关系词 as，而是因 为它是重复的比较点所以被省略掉。

1.3 定冠词的判断

一般语法书都列出一条规则：最高级要加定冠词。其实，冠词属于限定符类、是名词片语的一部分，应该是跟着名词走的。出现在名词词组中的 attributive 形容词，它前面才有可 能会有冠词出现。如果是补语位置的 predicative 形容词，并不是放在名词词组中，自然也没有冠词的问题。

Yellowstone is crowded.
Yellowstone is most crowded in summer.
Yellowstone is a crowded scenic spot.（ 黄石公园是人潮汹涌的风景区。）
Yellowstone is the most crowded of the state’s scenic spots. （ 黄石公园是这一州的风景区当中人潮最多的。）

Yellowstone is most crowded in summer.
形容词 most crowded 虽然是最高级，但它并非出现在名词词组中，所以不必加冠词。
Yellowstone is the most crowded in summer
补语位置的形容词加上定冠词 the 虽然并不合理，但语法只是「描述」一般人可以接受为正确的句子、并不是「规范」句子必须如何才算正确。所以，上面这个句子因为很多人这 样说，也就是正确的说法。

John is the shorter of the twins.
只要是具有指示性，比较级也要加定冠词
Of all my students, John studies (the) hardest.
副词的最高级 hardest 修饰动词 study。虽然它后面并没有名词，其实并不应该加什么冠 词，但是因为大部分人都这样用，所以仍然可以选择加上定冠词成为 the fastest。当然，这 种情况不加 the 也是对的。

1.4 That 和 those 的使用

比较级的句子要求对称工整，包括比较的对象在内也要对称。亦即，「谁和谁比」不能搞错

Cars made in Japan are better than those made in Korea.

1.5 比较句法的平行对称要求

比较的双方必须平行对称，这在英语写作中是相当严格的要求，也是最容易出错的地方之一。

Prices of papayas in Thailand, where the fruit is produced in abundance, are much lower than England, where it must be imported. （不佳）（价格和英国在比较）
（泰国木瓜的价钱——此地盛产木瓜——比英国低得多，英国的木瓜必须 靠进口。）

1. 先还原没有省略的从句
   Prices of papayas in Thailand are much lower than prices of papayas in England are.
2. are 可以省略， prices of papayas 避免重复用those 代替
   Prices of papayas in Thailand are much lower than those in England.
3. 其实，连这个代词 those 也可以选择省略，只要留下介词、让读者知道 England 是宾语而并非比较对象即可
   Prices of papayas in Thailand are much lower than in England.

Video games developed by this project team are more exciting than they are by any other team in this company. （误）(这个句子主要的错误在于状语从句中不该使用人称代词 they)
（这个项目小组研发的电玩，比这家公司其他团队的都更加刺激。）

1. 先还原没有省略的从句
   Video games developed by this project team are more exciting than video games developed by any other team in this company are.
2. are 可以省略， video games developed 避免重复用those 代替
   Video games developed by this project team are more exciting than those by any other team in this company.

Compared with the high crime rates of New York, Beijing residents live in a much safer environment. （不佳）(句中比较的双方，一个是 the high crime rates「高犯罪率」、一个是 Beijing residents「北京居民」，两者并不对称、无法相比)
（比起纽约的高犯罪率，北京居民生活在安全得多的环境中。）
Compared with the high crime rates of New York, those of Beijing are much lower. (犯罪率和犯罪率相比)
Compared with residents of New York, where crime rates are high, Beijing residents live in a much safer environment. (以居民和居 民相比)

Like Shakespeare, Keats’poetry is a true reflection of life. （不佳）
（和莎士比亚一样，济慈的诗也相当真实地反映人生。）(句中是拿 Shakespeare 这个「人」和 Keats’ poetry 这个「物」互相比较，并不符合平行对称要求)
Like Shakespeare, Keats wrote poetry that is a true reflection of life.
Like Shakespeare’s, Keats’poetry is a true reflection of life.

1.6 比较句法的省略

如前所述，比较级的句子虽然是从属从句，但是有些地方很像并列从句，例如它与主要从句重复的元素可以选择省略。但是，省略要以「够清楚」为限，不能过度省略而伤害到清 楚性。尤其要注意的是：不能造成有两种解释、模棱两可的结果

These restaurateurs do more business with tourists than local farmers. （不佳）
(这个句子的问题在于：local farmers 是跟 restaurateurs 比、还是跟 tourists 比，并没有交 代清楚)

1. These restaurateurs do a lot of business with tourists.
2. Local farmers do little business with tourists.
3. These restaurateurs do more business with tourists than local farmers do with tourists.
4. These restaurateurs do more business with tourists than local farmers do.
   最后的do务必保留，读者才知道 local farmers 是主语、也才知道它的比较对像是主要从句的主语 these restaurateurs。
5. These restaurateurs do a lot of business with tourists.
6. These restaurateurs do little business with local farmers.
7. These restaurateurs do more business with tourists than these restaurateurs do with local farmers.
8. These restaurateurs do more business with tourists than they do with local farmers.
9. These restaurateurs do more business with tourists than with local farmers.
   只要留下介词 with，读者就知道 local farmers 是宾语、也知道它的比较对像是主要子句中同样位置的宾语 tourists。

• 经由以上的分析，我们可以下一个小结论：比较句法的平行对称要求类似并列从句，than 或 as 引导的从属从句中也可以像并列从句一样省略掉与主要从句重复的部分；但是省略要 以「够清楚」为原则，要注意不得造成「模棱两可」的结果。

1.7 比较的倒装

比较句法除了经常会省略之外，有时还可以选择倒装。倒装的目的，主要是为了增加清楚性

Manual laborers are more strongly opposed to immigrants than white-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country. （不佳）

1. Manual laborers are strongly opposed to immigrants. (粗工强烈排斥移民。)
2. Manual laborers are not so strongly opposed to white-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country.
   (粗工并不强烈排斥白领阶级——大量涌进国内的外劳对后者的工作不会 构成严重的威胁。)
3. Manual laborers are more strongly opposed to immigrants than manual laborers are opposed to white-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country.
4. Manual laborers are more strongly opposed to immigrants than to white-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country.
   (只要把介词词组 to white-collar workers 中的介词 to 留下来，读者就知道 white-collar workers 是宾语、它的比较对像是主要从句中的宾语 immigrants。)
5. Manual laborers are strongly opposed to immigrants.
6. White-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country, are not very strongly opposed to immigrants.
7. Manual laborers are more strongly opposed to immigrants than white-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country, are opposed to immigrants.
8. Manual laborers are more strongly opposed to immigrants than white-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country, are.
   其实，从属从句中的动词 are 也和主要从句的动词重复，本来是可以省略的。但是，必须把动词 are 留下来，读者才知道 white-collar workers 是从属从句的主语、也才知道 white-collar workers 的比较对像是主要从句的主语 manual laborers。
   但是细看一下这个句子，会发现从属从句中主语 white-collar workers 和动词 are 之间隔了一个很长的关系从句。主语和动词的距离太远会造成意思不清楚。而且，动词 are 是个连 缀动词，它后面的补语 opposed to immigrants 省略掉之后，等于是借用主要从句中同样的一 个补语。把 are 一个字远远抛在后面，和主语与补语之间都有颇长的距离，这是很不清楚的 讲法。可是我们前面分析过，这个 are 又不能省略，否则会出现模棱两可的结果。碰到这种 棘手的情况，最好的解决办法就是倒装：
   Manual laborers are more strongly opposed to immigrants than are white-collar workers, whose jobs are not seriously threatened by outsiders that swarm into this country.

1.8 比较点的观察

Your friend is more bold than wise. （你那位朋友有勇无谋。）
Your friend is bolder than you (are). （你那位朋友比你大胆。）
Your friend is more bold than (he is) wise.
This movie is more boring than (it is) educational.
（这部电影与其说有教育性，不如说是无聊。）
I regard John more as a brother than as a boyfriend.
（在我眼中，John 与其说是男朋友，不如说是兄弟。）