All bets are off, the world is my oyster. - Shakespeare
今日阅读笔记整理内容：
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
...
1.4 Origin of Language
1.5 Functions of Language
1.5.1 Informative
1.5.2 Interpersonal Function
1.5.3 Performative
1.5.4 Emotive Function
1.5.5 Phatic Communion
1.5.6 Recreational Function
1.5.7 Metalingual Function
1.6 What is Linguistics?
1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics
1.7.1 Phonetics
1.7.2 Phonology
1.7.3 Morphology
1.7.4 Syntax
1.7.5 Semantics
1.7.6 Pragmatics
1.8 Macrolinguistics
1.8.1 Psycholinguistics
1.8.2 Sociolinguistics
1.8.3 Anthropological Linguistics
1.8.4 Computational Linguistics
1.4 Origin of Language
"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." (Gospel of John,1:1)
"And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do; and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do." (Genesis, 11:6)
*those two parts above really colored me intrigued.
Fanciful speculations about the origin of language may go on endless, but suffice it to say here that the by-now fruitless search for it reflects people's concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future. And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.
1.5 Functions of Language
Linguists talk about the FUNCTIONS of language in an abstract sense.
In the famous article, Linguistics and Poetics (1960) of Jakobson ( the Prague school structuralists), he defined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. In conjunction with there, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:
#1 referential (to convey message and information)
#2 poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake)
#3 emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions)
#4 conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),
#6 phatic (to establish communion with others)
#7 metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).
They correspond to such communication elements as context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code respectively.
Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL (constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations), INTERPERSONAL(enacts social relationships) and TEXTUAL functions (creates relevance to context).
1.5.1 Informative
Language is the instrument of thought. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.
Halliday notes that "Language serves for the expression of content: that is, of the speaker's experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness... In serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us."
*but if language is virtually the instrument of thought, then how babies think?
1.5.2 Interpersonal Function
people establish and maintain their status in a society by using the interpersonal function.
Language serves to establish and maintain social rules.
Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of expressing identity.
1.5.3 Performative
The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons.
The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.
1.5.4 Emotive Function
It is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. This function is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.
1.5.5 Phatic Communion
We call use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship, between people without involving any factual content. Broadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.
1.5.6 Recreational Function
The use of language for the hearty joy of using it.
1.5.7 Metalingual Function
Language can be used to talk about itself, making the language infinitely self-reflexive.
1.6 What is Linguistics?
Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language and has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.
1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics
at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic.
1.7.1 Phonetics
PHONETICS studies speech sounds.
a) speech is a matter of anatomy and physiology
b) articulatory phonetics
c) acoustic phonetics
d) auditory phonetics
A solid knowledge of phonetics can serve as a good foundation for phonology. Without it, the study of phonology would be clueless.
*C.F. sounds & speech sounds: sounds could be meaningless, whereas speech sounds convey certain meanings inside.
1.7.2 Phonology
PHONOLOGY studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllable. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme (the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning) as the point of departure.
*C.F. Phonetics & Phonology: phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.
1.7.3 Morphology
MORPHOLOGY is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.
1.7.4 Syntax
SYNTAX is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax.
1.7.5 Semantics
SEMANTICS examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meanings of morphemes and sentences.
1.7.6 Pragmatics
PRAGMATICS is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.
1.8 Macrolinguistics
Although "Saussure's goal was to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other with other sciences. The central goal o f describing the underlying system remains; this is the province of general, descriptive linguistics.
1.8.1 Psycholinguistics
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.
1.8.2 Sociolinguistics
SOCIOLINGUISTICS is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society. It is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.
*An umbrella term is a word or phrase that covers a broad interval or set of functions or items that all fall under a single common category.
1.8.3 Anthropological Linguistics
Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years.
1.8.4 Computational Linguistics
COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (aka "natural language", to distinguish it from computer languages.) To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provide theories and descriptions of language structure and us.
词汇整理：
discredited (1) to injure the credit or reputation of; defame: an effort to discredit honest politicians. (2 ) to show to be undeserving of trust or belief; destroy confidence in: Later research discredited earlier theories. (3) to give no credence to; disbelieve: There was good reason to discredit the witness.
pooh is an interjection, an exclamation of disdain, contempt, or disgust 呸
Something that is problematic involves problems and difficulties. 有问题的
speculation 投机；推测；思索；投机买卖：The theory is again at most a speculation.
A rhythmic movement or sound is repeated at regular intervals, forming a regular pattern or beat. 有节奏的
If you grunt, you make a low sound, especially because you are annoyed or not interested in something. (尤指厌烦或不感兴趣时) 嘟哝着说; 嘟哝
A chant is a word or group of words that is repeated over and over again. 重复的话语：He was greeted by the chant of "Judas! Judas!" 他迎来的是不绝于耳的呼喊“叛徒！叛徒！”。 A chant is a religious song or prayer that is sung on only a few notes. 圣歌; 赞美诗：...a Gregorian chant.…一首格列高利圣歌。 If you chant something or if you chant, you repeat the same words over and over again. 反复地说：Demonstrators chanted slogans. 示威者们反复地喊着口号。
prosodic 诗体学的；作诗法的；韵律学的：We do have prosodic use of thythms in language, but rhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense.
in conjunction with 互相协调
Prague school (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
[beginning]
The Prague school or Prague linguistic circle[1]was an influential[2]group ofliterary criticsandlinguistsinPrague. Its proponents developed methods ofstructuralist literary analysis[3]and a theory of the standard language and of language cultivation during the years 1928–1939. The linguistic circle was founded in the Café Derby in Prague, which is also where meetings took place during its first years.[4]
The Prague School has had a significant continuing influence on linguistics and semiotics. Following the Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948, the circle was disbanded in 1952, but the Prague School continued as a major force in linguistic functionalism (distinct from the Copenhagen schoo lor English Firthian — later Hallidean— linguistics). American scholar Dell Hymes cites his 1962 paper, "The Ethnography of Speaking," as the formal introduction of Prague functionalism to American linguistic anthropology.[5]The Prague structuralists also had a significant influence on structuralist film theory, especially through the introduction of th eostensive sign.[6]
The Prague linguistic circle included the Russian émigrésRoman Jakobson,Nikolai Trubetzkoy, andSergei Karcevskiy, as well as the famous Czech literary scholarsRené WellekandJan Mukařovský. The instigator of the circle, and its first president until his death in 1945, was theCzechlinguistVilém Mathesius.
In 1929 the Circle promulgated its theses in a paper submitted to the First Congress of Slavists. "The programmatic 1929 PragueTheses, surely one of the most imposing linguistic edifices of the 20th century, incapsulated [sic] the functionalist credo."[7]In the late 20th century, English translations of the Circle's seminal works were published by the Czech linguist Josef Vachek in several collections.
Also in 1929, the group launched a journal,Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague. World War II brought an end to it. TheTravauxwas briefly resurrected in 1966–1971. The inaugural issue was devoted to the political science concept of center and periphery. It was resurrected yet again in 1995. The group's Czech language work is published inSlovo a slovesnost(Word and Literature).
[ending]
conative denotes an aspect of verbs in some languages used to indicate the effort of the agent in performing the activity described by the verb 意动的 / [Grammar] expressing endeavor or effort: a conative verb.
An imperative is a verb in the base form that is used, usually without a subject, in an imperative clause. 祈使语气动词
A vocative is a word such as "darling" or "sir" that is used to address someone or attract their attention. 呼格
Your intonation is the way that your voice rises and falls as you speak. 语调; 声调：His voice had a very slight German intonation. 他的嗓音中有一点德语语调。
phatic (of speech, esp of conversational phrases) used to establish social contact and to express sociability rather than specific meaning (言语，尤指谈话)仅仅是交际的
metalinguistic 元语言的；纯理语言的
metalanguage is any language or symbolic system used to discuss, describe, or analyze another language or symbolic system. [计] 元语言；纯理语言
metafunction 纯理功能；元功能
ideational is of, relating to, or involving ideas or concepts. 概念的；观念的；构想的；设想的
textual means relating to written texts, especially literary texts. 文本的：...close textual analysis of Shakespeare. ...对莎士比亚作品文本的仔细分析。
Something's relevance to a situation or person is its importance or significance in that situation or to that person. 相关性：Politicians' private lives have no relevance to their public roles. 政治家的私生活与他们的公众角色没有相关性。
In a representational painting, the artist attempts to show things as they really are. (绘画)具象的; 写实的：His painting went through both representational and abstract periods.他的绘画风格经历了具象和抽象两个阶段。
A heuristic method of learning involves discovery and problem solving, using reasoning and past experience. (学习方法)启发式的
If one thing is a prerequisite for another, it must happen or exist before the other thing is possible. 先决条件：Good self-esteem is a prerequisite for a happy life. 良好的自尊心是幸福生活的先决条件。
functional grammar 功能语法
discourse situation 语境
If you delimit something, you fix or establish its limits. 定界限：This is not meant to delimit what approaches social researchers can adopt. 这并不是说要划定社会研究者所能够采用方法的界限。
voiceprint is a graphic representation of a person's voice recorded electronically, usually having time plotted along the horizontal axis and the frequency of the speech on the vertical axis 声波纹
If a group of people show solidarity, they show support for each other or for another group, especially in political or international affairs. 团结一致; 相互支持
performative denotes an utterance that constitutes some act, esp the act described by the verb. For example, "I confess that I was there" is itself a confession, and so is performative in the narrower sense, while "I'd like you to meet …" (effecting an introduction) is performative only in the looser sense 施事话语的 (ADJ as NOUN)
ritualize is to engage in ritualism or devise rituals 使礼仪化
Ritualistic actions or behavior follow a similar pattern every time they are used. 例行公事般的 ; 惯常的：Each evening she bursts into her apartment with a ritualistic shout of "Honey I'm home!" 每天晚上她都是一边嚷着“亲爱的，我回来啦！”一边冲进公寓。Ritualistic acts are the fixed patterns of behaviour that form part of a religious service or ceremony. 宗教仪式的; 固守仪式的：...the meditative and ritualistic practices of Buddhism....佛教的冥想和仪式。
adverse (1 )unfavorable or antagonistic in purpose or effect: adverse criticism. (2) opposing one's interests or desire: adverse circumstances. (3) being or acting in a contrary direction; opposed or opposing: adverse winds. (4) opposite; confronting: the adverse page.
obscenity is behavior, art, or language that is sexual and offends or shocks people. 猥亵 (行为、语言等)：He insisted these photographs were not art but obscenity. 他坚持认为这些照片不是艺术而是淫秽品。obscenity is a very offensive word or expression. 猥亵言辞：They shouted obscenities at us and smashed bottles on the floor. 他们冲我们骂脏话，还往地板上砸瓶子。
If you make an involuntary movement or exclamation, you make it suddenly and without intending to because you are unable to control yourself. 不由自主的：Another surge of pain in my ankle caused me to give an involuntary shudder. 踝关节的又一阵疼痛使我不由自主地颤抖了一下。You use involuntary to describe an action or situation that is forced on someone. 非自愿的：...insurance policies that cover death, accident, sickness and involuntary unemployment.…承保死亡、事故、疾病和非自愿性失业的保险。
A performer's repertoire is all the plays or pieces of music that he or she has learned and can perform. (表演者的) 全部曲目; 保留剧目 (1) the list of dramas, operas, parts, pieces, etc., that a company, actor, singer, or the like, is prepared to perform. (2) the entire stock of works existing in a particular artistic field: A new play has been added to the theatrical repertoire. (3) the entire stock of skills, techniques, or devices used in a particular field or occupation: a magician's repertoire.
hearty people or actions are loud, cheerful, and energetic. 喧闹活泼的：Wade was a hearty, athletic sort of guy. 韦德是那种精力充沛、身体强壮的家伙。Hearty feelings or opinions are strongly felt or strongly held. (感情或观点等) 强烈的：With the last sentiment, Arnold was in hearty agreement. 对于最后一个观点，阿诺德强烈赞同。A hearty meal is large and very satisfying. (饭菜) 丰盛的：The men ate a hearty breakfast.男士们吃了一顿丰盛的早餐。heartily 胃口很大地：He ate heartily but would drink only beer. 他吃饭的胃口很大，但只喝啤酒。hale and hearty 精神充沛的，矍铄的；老当益壮的，健壮的。
A duel is a formal fight between two people in which they use guns or swords in order to settle a quarrel. 双人决斗: song dueling 对歌。
nonsensical (1) (of words or language) having little or no meaning; making little or no sense: A baby's babbling is appealingly nonsensical. (2) (of behavior, conduct, actions, etc.) foolish, senseless, fatuous, or absurd: His nonsensical behavior was unusual for such a serious person. (3) objectionable, impudent, insubordinate: I refuse to listen to that nonsensical gossip. (4) of trifling importance or of little or no use: I've had more than enough of your nonsensical advice!
sheer (1) transparently thin; diaphanous, as some fabrics: sheer stockings. (2) unmixed with anything else: We drilled a hundred feet through sheer rock. (3) unqualified; utter: sheer nonsense. (4) extending down or up very steeply; almost completely vertical: a sheer descent of rock.
mesh with (1) (齿轮)啮合：There is something wrong with this machine, the wheels aren't meshing properly with each other. 这台机器出了毛病，齿轮相互间啮合不当。(2) 一致；适合；符合：This doesn't mesh with the idea that I was given of the work in this office. 这个办公室的工作情况和过去告诉我的不一样。I'm afraid that your ideas don't quite mesh with mine. 恐怕你的想法和我的想法不一致。
You use intricate to describe something that has many small parts or details. 复杂精细的
Your intuition or your intuitions are unexplained feelings that something is true even when you have no evidence or proof of it. 直觉
A corpus is a large collection of written or spoken texts that is used for language research. 语料库
Empirical evidence or study relies on practical experience rather than theories. 实证的
Qualitative means relating to the nature or standard of something, rather than to its quantity. 质的; 品质上的
Quantitative means relating to different sizes or amounts of things. 数量的; 与数有关的
Parameters are factors or limits that affect the way something can be done or made. 参数; 界限
morphological [,mɔ:fə'lɔdʒikəl] 形态的;形态学的[亦作 morphologic
phonological [,fonə'lɑdʒɪkl] 音韵学的
In linguistics, phonetics is the study of speech sounds. 语音学; Phonetic means relating to the sound of a word or to the sounds that are used in languages. 语音的; 发音的
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the bodies of people or animals. 解剖学：...a course in anatomy.…一门解剖学课程。You can refer to your body as your anatomy. 身体：The ball hit him in the most sensitive part of his anatomy. 这个球打中了他身体的最敏感部位。
articulatory [ɑr'tɪkjulətɔri] 关节的；分节的；发音清晰的
An acoustic guitar or other instrument is one whose sound is produced without any electrical equipment. 自然声的; If you refer to the acoustics of a space, you are referring to the structural features which determine how well you can hear music or speech in it. 传声效果：In this performance, Rattle had the acoustics of the Symphony Hall on his side. 在这场演出中，拉特尔有着交响音乐厅传声效果的翼助。 Acoustics is the scientific study of sound. 声学：...his work in acoustics. …他在声学方面的工作。
Auditory means related to hearing. 听觉的：...the limits of the human auditory range.…人类听觉范围的局限。
A phoneme is the smallest unit of significant sound in a language. 音位; 音素
morphophonology [,mɔrfofə'nimɪks] [语] 形态音位学；词素音位学
entailment Linguistics.a relationship between two sentences such that if the first is true, the second must also be true, as in Her son drives her to work every day and Her son knows how to drive.
A presupposition is something that you assume to be true, especially something that you must assume is true in order to continue with what you are saying or thinking. (尤指必须的)假设; 预想; 预设
Ethnography is the branch of anthropology in which different cultures are studied and described. 人种志
the science of law 法学
artificial intelligence 人工智能
If you say that a subject or activity is a particular person's province, you mean that this person has a special interest in it, a special knowledge of it, or a special responsibility for it. (学识或活动的) 领域; (兴趣或职责的) 范围：Tattooing is not just the province of sailors. 纹身不只是水手们才感兴趣的事。
Cognition is the mental process involved in knowing, learning, and understanding things. 认知
differentiation the act or process of differentiating, or the state of being differentiated. 变异，[生物] 分化；区别
Societal means relating to society or to the way society is organized. 社会的; 社会组织方式的: societal rules.
To constrain someone or something means to limit their development or force them to behave in a particular way. 限制; 迫使：Women are too often constrained by family commitments and by low expectations. 女性往往受家庭职责及低期望值约束。
You use ancestral to refer to a person's family in former times, especially when the family is important and has property or land that they have had for a long time. 祖先的
If someone mediates between two groups of people, or mediates an agreement between them, they try to settle an argument between them by talking to both groups and trying to find things that they can both agree to. 调解
The retrieval of information from a computer is the process of getting it back. (电脑中信息的) 读取： ...electronic storage and retrieval systems. …电子存储和读取系统。The retrieval of something is the process of getting it back from a particular place, especially from a place where it should not be. 找回; 取回：Its real purpose is the launching and retrieval of small aeroplanes in flight. 它的真正目的是发射和找回飞行中的小型飞机。
Normative means creating or stating particular rules of behavior. 规范的; 标准的：Normative sexual behavior in our society remains heterosexual.我们社会的性行为规范依然是异性间的。...a normative model of teaching....一种教学的标准模式。
Extraneous things are not relevant or essential to the situation you are involved in or the subject you are talking about. 无关的; 不必要的：To avoid delays, she wanted the disaster relief legislation to be kept free of extraneous matters. 为避免延误，她希望无关紧要的事不被掺杂进灾害救济立法程序中。
The infinitive of a verb is the basic form, for example, "do," "be," "take," and "eat." The infinitive is often used with "to" in front of it. (动词的) 不定式
A grammarian is someone who studies the grammar of a language and writes books about it or teaches it. 语法学家
diachronic of, relating to, or studying the development of a phenomenon through time; historical 历时的; 研究历时现象的发展的; 历史的
synchronic concerned with the events or phenomena at a particular period without considering historical antecedents 不考虑历史背景的
If something is a fiction, it is not true, although people sometimes pretend that it is true. 假象：Total recycling is a fiction. 完全回收利用是假象。
Something, especially something bad, that is pervasive is present or felt throughout a place or thing. (尤指不好的事物) 无处不在的：...the pervasive influence of the army in national life. …军队在国民生活中无处不在的影响。
Darwinist ['dɑ:winist] 进化论者；崇拜达尔文之学说者. 达尔文的
langue/lɑːŋɡ/considered as an abstract system or a social institution, being the common possession of a speech community 语言
parole [pə'rol] n. 语言；誓言，诺言；释放宣言 vt. 有条件释放，假释；使假释出狱；宣誓后释放 If a prisoner is given parole, he or she is released before the official end of their prison sentence and has to promise to behave well. 假释：Although sentenced to life, he will become eligible for parole after serving 10 years. 尽管被判无期，服刑10年后他将有资格获得假释。 ...a parole violation. …一次假释违纪。(2) a prisoner ison parole, he or she is released before the official end of their prison sentence and will not be sent back to prison if their behaviour is good. 获假释 (3) If a prisoner is paroled, he or she is given parole. 获假释：He faces at most 12 years in prison and could be paroled after eight years. 他面临最多12年的监禁，可以在8年后获得假释。
The lexicon of a particular subject is all the terms associated with it. The lexicon of a person or group is all the words they commonly use. (某一学科、个人或群体的)全部词汇：...the lexicon of management. ...管理学词汇。 Chocolate equals sin in most people's lexicon. 巧克力在大多数人的字典里等同于罪恶。(2) .N-COUNT A lexiconis an alphabetical list of the words in a language or the words associated with a particular subject. (某一语言或学科的)词汇表
if you transcribe a speech or text, you write or type it out, for example, from notes or from a tape recording. (根据笔记或磁带录音等) 写下; 用打字机打出：She is transcribing, from his dictation, the diaries of Simon Forman. 她正在根据他的口述记录西蒙·福曼的日记。
N-VAR An inventoryis a supply or stock of something. 存货：...one inventory of twelve sails for each yacht.…为每艘游艇配备12张帆的存货。(2) N-COUNT An inventory is a written list of all the objects in a particular place such as all the merchandise in a shop. 清单: Before starting, he made an inventory of everything that was to stay. 出发前，他把要留下的所有东西列了一份详细清单。
If something is generative, it is capable of producing something or causing it to develop. 有生产能力的; 令…生长的： ...the generative power of the sun. ...太阳催生万物的能力。(2) ADJ In linguistics, generative is used to describe linguistic theories or models which are based on the idea that a single set of rules can explain how all the possible sentences of a language are formed. (语言学)生成的
Homogeneous is used to describe a group or thing which has members or parts that are all the same. 同种类的：The unemployed are not a homogeneous group. 失业者并不都是同一类人。
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